In 1891, Emil Fischer determined the structures of glucose and the seven other D-aldohexoses using only simple chemical reactions and clever reasoning about stereochemistry and symmetry. He received the Nobel Prize for this work in 1902. Fischer had determined that D-glucose is an aldohexose, and he used Ruff degradations to degrade it to (+)-glyceraldehyde. Therefore, the eight D-aldohexose structures shown in Figure 23-3 are the possible structures for glucose. Pretend that no names are shown in Figure 23-3 except for glyceraldehyde, and use the following results to prove which of these structures represent glucose, mannose, arabinose, and erythrose.
(a) Upon Ruff degradation, glucose and mannose give the same aldopentose: arabinose. Nitric acid oxidation of arabinose gives an optically active aldaric acid. What are the two possible structures of arabinose?
(b) Upon Ruff degradation, arabinose gives the aldotetrose erythrose. Nitric acid oxidation of erythrose gives an optically inactive aldaric acid, meso-tartaric acid. What is the structure of erythrose?
(c) Which of the two possible structures of arabinose is correct? What are the possible structures of glucose and mannose?
(d) Fischer's genius was needed to distinguish between glucose and mannose. He developed a series of reactions to convert the aldehyde group of an aldose to an alcohol while converting the terminal alcohol to an aldehyde. In effect, he swapped the functional groups on the ends. When he interchanged the functional groups on D-mannose, he was astonished to find that the product was still D-mannose. Show how this information completes the proof of the mannose structure, and show how it implies the correct glucose structure.