Emoticons, like and , are helpful for expressing emotion in communications that otherwise have limited emotional content (e.g., emails, text messages, and social media posts). Derks, Bos, and von Grumbkow (2007) conducted an independent sample experiment to study the effect of social context and emotion on the use of emoticons. Four groups of participants were instructed to use an internet chat program and the researchers measured the number of emoticons produced by participants. The first group of participants was instructed to communicate about an emotionally positive task (e.g., organizing a group project). The second group of participants was instructed to communicate about an emotionally positive socio-emotional event (e.g., brainstorming about a friend’s birthday). The third group was treated like the first group, except that task was emotionally negative and the fourth group was treated like the second group, except that the socio-emotional event was emotionally negative. They observed data like those listed below.

a. Use a two-factor ANOVA with α = .05 to evaluate the main effects and interaction.

b. How do the results change if α = .01?

c. Calculate the effects size (η²) for the main effects and the interaction.

d. Briefly describe the outcome of the study.

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Factor A: Context Task Socioemotional Factor B: Emotion Positive Negative 14 1 5 5 13 1 9 9 9 7 13 11 13 16 4 13 9 15 14 19