Training and Development 7 Blend Images/Blend Images/Superstock Learning Outcomes Define the terms training and development. After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following: Describe a systematic HRM approach to training and developmentincluding training needs assessment, design, development, delivery, and evaluation. List and describe various forms of training. Explain decisions that are often necessary to create and administer a training program. Discuss opportunities, challenges, and recent trends in training and development. 167 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 167 10/27/15 1:39 PM Introduction Introduction According to the Association for Talent development (ATD), formerly the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD), U.S. organizations spent $156 billion in 2011 on employee learning and development (Miller, 2012). The commonly held belief is that these substantial expenditures are investments in human capital, with returns in the form of higher employee productivity, talent retention, and the creation of a sustainable human-based competitive advantage. Web Link The Association for Talent Development www.td.org ATD is an organization of experts in training and development. It is one of the most widely recognized organizations of this kind in the United States and globally. The ATD attracts members from around the world and from all types of organizations, all sharing a common professional interest in training and development processes and in HRM. Training is a process that provides employees with opportunities to obtain the necessary knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAOs) that enable them to perform their current job-related duties more effectively and responsibly. Employee development, on the other hand, is not necessarily related to the job an employee currently holds, although it can be related to that job (London, 1989). Usually, however, development focuses on the future and prepares employees to take on the duties and responsibilities of other positions (Fitzgerald, 1992). Most of the concepts discussed in this chapter apply to both training and development, and the two terms are used interchangeably in most sections. Training and development are distinguished from education, often received in schools, colleges, and universities. The emphasis in education is on imparting knowledge, theory, and application. On the other hand, training and development emphasize skill development and enhancement. Opening Case Study Training and Development at Aldi Access the following link: http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/aldi/business-expansionthrough-training-and-development/#axzz2cvNpvDxn Similar to many retailers, Aldi follows an efficiency model. The primary characteristics of an efficiency model are low wages, less-than-stellar working conditions, and many part-time employees that are primarily treated as interchangeable parts. This is not the case at Aldi. Instead, there is a strong emphasis on training and development. (continued) 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 168 10/27/15 1:39 PM Section 7.2 The Training Process Opening Case Study Training and Development at Aldi (continued) Discussion Questions 1. How does Aldi's business model differ from its competitors? 2. How does Aldi balance cost savings with training and development expenditures? 3. Is it reasonable for Aldi to invest in training and development, in an industry where high employee turnover is the norm? 7.1 The Strategic Value of Training and Development Training imparts knowledge. Because knowledge is a key to organizational success, training must be considered strategically. Training creates value through investing in employees who add value to an organization and who constitute its intellectual capital. Training helps organizations leverage knowledge, and it therefore enables them to become more competitive. Even organizations that have exceptional recruitment and selection competencies sometimes find that they lack critical KSAOs because environmental, market, and technological changes continuously render existing KSAOs redundant, obsolete, or of limited use. However, training by itself does not have any strategic value unless it is linked to organizational goals and objectives. In other words, training should be designed, implemented, and evaluated so that it contributes to measurable improvements in organizational core competencies. Training can also have a positive effect on an organization's rate of employee retention. Workers are on the lookout for employers who offer and promote training and career advancement. Training and career development are valued more highly than high salaries, and they contribute to job satisfaction. Therefore, training plays a critical role in attracting and retaining talent (Hequet, 1993). Blend Images/Blend Images/Superstock Training adds value to an organization's workforce, and also has a positive effect on retention rates. 7.2 The Training Process Training starts with an accurate, comprehensive, and strategically oriented assessment of an organization's training needs. Training is then designed and developed based on those needs. Strategic decisions must be made regarding how, when, where, and by whom training should be delivered to maximize its effectiveness and impact. Finally, a comprehensive assessment of training outcomes makes it easier to evaluate how well a training program has met the organization's identified needs and objectives. This information feeds into subsequent cycles of training needs assessments and leads to an ongoing improvement of 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 169 10/27/15 1:39 PM Section 7.2 The Training Process training initiatives. Figure 7.1 summarizes the training process and relates it to the strategic HRM process. Figure 7.1: Training and development Job analysis and job design Attraction and recruitment of talent Strategic HR planning Benefits and benefit administration Selection and job fit Performance appraisal/ management Compensation Training and development Training needs assessment Training evaluation reaction learning behavior results Training delivery Training design Training development 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 170 10/27/15 1:39 PM Section 7.2 The Training Process Training often entails substantial resource investments; an organization should therefore assess its needs for training before it decides to provide any type of training to its employees. For many organizations, training is the first resort when any problems are detected. However, training cannot resolve every organizational problem; training tends to be most effective in resolving KSAO deficiencies. For example, compare the following three scenarios: Training Needs Assessment 1. An employee prefers to work on her own rather than be part of a team. 2. An employee asks his supervisor and coworkers too many questions and seems to always need help and assurance that he is on the right track. 3. An employee wastes his time and his coworkers' time, hopping between cubicles to chat and gossip. Many organizations would approach these three situations indiscriminately, treating them all as training needs. For example, all three of these individuals' managers might ask HR to train their staff on teamwork, technical skills, interpersonal skills, and office etiquette. However, only the second scenario clearly signals a training need. The employee who asks too many questions may lack technical KSAOs or the self-efficacy to apply his current KSAOs, both of which can be enhanced through training. The first employee's preference for individual work may be due to her personality trait of introversion, which cannot be changed through training. Or perhaps her preference proceeds from a lack of trust, which is part of the organization's or work unit's culture. Alternatively, the reward system of the organization or work unit may be geared toward individual performance rather than collaboration and teamwork. Again, training is not the best intervention to resolve these challenges. Other organizational interventions include changing the selection criteria for that position to hire more extroverted individuals, introducing organizational development initiatives to increase trust, or creating team-based rewards. Any of these interventions may be more effective than training in the first scenario. In the third scenario, training is also unlikely to ameliorate the gossiping employee's counterproductive behavior. Excessive chatting is rarely a result of KSAO deficiencies; negative attitudes such as lack of job satisfaction, work engagement, or organizational commitment are more usual sources for this behavior. Training is unlikely to resolve these underlying problems; motivational techniques are necessary instead. To increase this employee's motivation, it may be necessary to redesign his job to make it more challenging or to transfer him to a job that better fits his abilities. Alternatively, the reward system of the organization may be promoting this employee's counterproductive behaviorfor example, if he is paid an Blend Images/Blend Images/Superstock Training needs are assessed after a performance evaluation at the individual and organizational levels. 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 171 10/27/15 1:39 PM The Training Process Section 7.2 hourly rate or a fixed salary, or if he believes that playing office politics is the way to move ahead in his organization. Changing the reward process to depend on productivity rather than \"face time\" or politics may be appropriate for this situation. Training needs assessment (TNA) is the first stage of the training process. Training needs are assessed through evaluating performance at the organizational and individual levels, and identifying any gaps between the current and the required competencies that might hinder the organization's progress. If training is indeed necessary, then the next step is to determine the type of training that will most effectively strengthen the specific areas where employees are struggling (O'Connor, 2006). Three sources of information help an organization determine the type of training it needs: Organizational analysis makes it possible to determine the current and future needs for KSAOs, taking into consideration internal and external forces that could possibly have an impact on training. High absenteeism or turnover are also considered throughout this process. Job analysis or task analysis is the review of job specifications to compare the KSAOs needed to perform a specified job with the KSAOs an employee currently has. Individual analysis compares employee performance against preestablished performance standards. In this case, performance appraisal data can be used as a good source of information for the analysis. Moreover, input from employees themselves can also help an organization identify its training needs. Once an organization determines that training is needed, the next step is training design: setting the training's objectives and priorities. The objectives depend on the capabilities that employees currently have and the new capabilities that an organization wants them to have. These training objectives become the foundations for developing, delivering, and evaluating training outcomes. Training objectives should also be communicated to trainees to allow them to see the big picture; this process is referred to as whole training, and it increases training effectiveness. Training Design Learner readiness, learning styles, and transfer of learning are three factors that should be addressed during the training design stage to ensure that the training will be effective: 1. Learner readiness is the capacity, willingness, and motivation to learn. It is the first of many factors to be addressed during the training design stage. Employees must at least possess fundamental math, writing, and reading skills to be able to grasp the content of the training program. If employees lack these fundamental skills, then teaching them these basics becomes one of the training objectives. A training program's objectives should be tailored in the design stage to fit employees' readiness and capacity to learn. Another important factor in learner readiness is self-efficacy, which has been defined as a person's \"belief about his or her ability to mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action necessary to execute a specific action within a given context\" (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998, p. 66). Thus, self-efficacy can be critical in learner motivation and willingness to learn. Indeed, learning self-efficacy is a mediator between learning goal orientation and performance (Potosky & Ramakrishna, 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 172 10/27/15 1:39 PM The Training Process Section 7.2 2002). Employees need to believe they are able to learn training aterials effecm tively, and training design must include ways to increase trainees' levels of confidence. The following methods are the most widely recognized ways to build selfefficacy (Bandura, 1997): Mastery and success experiences increase employees' confidence by helping them master a task successfully. Maintaining trainees' confidence is challenging when they are faced with new challenges. However, trainees' confidence can increase when experienced trainers and coaches offer them \"guided mastery\" experiences through a series of training tasks that gradually increase in difficulty. Observation and modeling are techniques used when experienced trainers demonstrate desired job behaviors. These techniques are particularly suitable when trial-and-error learning is prohibitively expensive or too riskyfor example, for pilots, surgeons, and construction workers. In these cases, experienced trainers can demonstrate or model the desired job behaviors. Observing a model successfully complete a task has been found to increase trainees' confidence. Social persuasion involves receiving positive feedback and listening to motivational speakers. Although this method influences trainees less strongly than mastery and modeling training techniques, it can instill a confident, can-do attitude in learners. Physiological and psychological arousal make trainees more confident about their learning abilities. Training can be designed to capitalize on physiological and psychological arousal through setting reasonable start and end times, securing a distraction-free learning environment, including activities that put trainees in a good mood, and providing adequate breaks and nutritious meals throughout the training. Trainees' general health also affects their ability to learn. 2. Learning styles are another factor to be addressed during the training design stage. People learn in different ways, so there is no single way that works best for everyone. The Felder-Silverman model is one of the recognized models of learning styles. According to this model, individual learners can have any combination of these four continua of learning styles: Active or reflective Sensing or intuitive Visual or verbal Sequential or global (Felder & Spurlin, 2005) Other models and classifications systems of learning styles are also available and commonly used. Learning styles can be incorporated into the training design stage to align the training with the trainees' particular learning styles. Since training often involves learners with different styles, trainers who utilize multiple methods can deliver a more effective training that meets the needs of more learners (Karns, 2006). However, more recent experimental studies show limited, if any, relationship between learning style and training effectiveness or outcomes (Kappe et al., 2009; Pashler et al., 2008; Santo, 2006). 3. Transfer of training is another factor of training design; it is the extent to which capabilities learned in training are subsequently applied on the job. Accordingly, training should be designed to help employees apply what they learn in training sessions to real job situations. The need for transferrable capabilities should shape 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 173 10/27/15 1:39 PM The Training Process Section 7.2 not only the training objectives but also the training methods in order to maximize learners' readiness and motivation. For example, consider the effectiveness of the following common alternatives for construction workers' safety training: A lecture in a meeting room explaining safety regulations and expected behaviors A handbook with written safety guidelines and pictures depicting safe and hazardous behaviors An online step-by-step presentation showing workers behaving in safe and hazardous ways with a narrated explanation of the behaviors A site visit and in situ demonstration of safe and hazardous situations The above alternatives are progressively better at enhancing learner readiness and facilitating training transfer. Training design helps an organization answer the \"what\" questions about trainingsuch as what are the training objectives, what are the trainees' learning styles, and what will enhance learners' readiness and knowledge transfer? In contrast, training development answers the \"how\" questions. It is about finding the content and resources to meet the training's goals and objectives. Training Development The training development stage requires Photononstop/Photononstop/Superstock numerous decisions. The most critiTransfer of training is the extent to which an cal is whether the organization has the employee's training is used and applied to the job. resources to develop, deliver, and assess training in house. According to ATD, about two-thirds of training expenditures by U.S. organizations are for internal learning functions, such as training staff salaries and the administrative costs involved in internal development. However, training development, delivery, and evaluation are often outsourced if the needed training will be long or complex, requires specialized expertise, or requires assessment through designated entities. For example, if professional certification is required, an organization is likely to send its employees to specialized qualifying courses and have employees take the standard examinations required by the certifying body. It is also often more cost effective to outsource highly technical training, particularly when the number of employees who need training is too small to make it cost effective to develop in house. On the other hand, when large organizations do have enough employees to make inhouse development cost effective, one effective way to develop and deliver training is through corporate universities. Unlike typical universities' degrees, degrees from corporate universities are not universally recognized outside the organization. However, corporate universities resemble typical universities in hiring subject-matter experts to develop specialized trainings and in having an administrative structure that is separate from the corporate organization. Corporate universities' goals are to promote a learning environment and organizational 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 174 10/27/15 1:39 PM The Training Process Section 7.2 culture that encourage ongoing learning and development at both the individual and organizational levels. If training will be developed in house, the developers will need to determine: The topics to be covered The skills to be practiced The mastery levels to be achieved for each, based on the predetermined needs and objectives Developers will also need to select and develop the materials for the training. A critical decision is whether to develop new learning material, adapt existing material from internal or external sources, or use off-the-shelf material. New learning material has the advantage of being organization-specific. This makes it most relevant to the training needs of the employees. It is also most likely to yield organization-specific knowledge, which can more effectively build unique competencies than off-the-shelf training material that competitors could copy and use for their employees. However, developing new training material can be costly and time consuming. It may require hiring subject-matter experts. On the other hand, if the training needs and objectives can be met using available material, then this material can still be adapted to become more organization-specific at a fraction of the cost and time. Training development focuses on training content and how well it meets training needs and objectives, while training delivery focuses on training methods and logistics. Many critical decisions are made at this stage, and many delivery options are weighed so that trainees can benefit as much as possible from the content. Training Delivery: Decisions About Types of Training Formal training is structured: its content, approach, sequence, and organization are all predetermined. One example of formal training is the course you're taking. Tremendous thought and energy have been invested in designing and developing this course before its delivery, and the course follows an established structure, including its process and outcomes. However, formal training does not have to be in a classroom setting. It can be online, as this course is. Formal training can also be in the form of formal mentoring relationships where protgs are assigned to mentors and specific mentoring logistics and outcomes are predetermined. Formal Versus Informal Approaches Informal training is not as systematic or goal oriented as formal training is. Informal training may occur through interacting with supervisors and coworkers, asking questions, having informal discussions, or independent reading. Informal training is often challenging to evaluate because it has few if any set goals. However, managers and employees sometimes set their own goals and objectives for informal training (Cofer, 2000), which can increase the training's effectiveness in meeting specific needs and objectives. For example, informal mentoring, where mentors and protgs select each other based on mutual interests, has been shown to be more effective than formal mentoring (Ragins & Cotton, 1999). 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 175 10/27/15 1:39 PM The Training Process Section 7.2 On-the-job training (OJT) is a common method in which organizations focus on the technical aspects of the job. OJT is delivered where the job takes place. Throughout the training, trainees, also referred to as apprentices, are familiarized with the job and its tools, procedures, and techniques. Trainees gain hands-on exposure and they experience the work they'll do after the training period ends. On-the-job training can be in the form of demonstration, instruction, or coaching. Other examples of OJT are job rotation, shadowing a more experienced employee, and assignment to a special project for the purpose of learning. Most informal training takes place on the job. On-the-Job Versus Off-the-Job Training When an employer sponsors off-the-job training, workers are usually given time off from work to attend training elsewhere. Jeff Greenberg/age footstock/Superstock Employees may also use their personal On-the-job training is one of the more common time or employer approved vacation time to methods of training used by organizations. pursue additional off-the-job training such as courses offered at training centers, evening classes at a local college, college programs, and self-study. Training may take place at an employer facility or another venue. One of the advantages of on-site training is that there is no need for employees to commute to receive training, which can save time. The cost of on-site training can also be lower because additional costs such as rental charges and transportation are avoided. On-site training may also be more beneficial to an organization because it gives employees the chance to associate what they learn with the workplace. This benefit especially applies in on-the-job training. On-Site Versus Off-Site Training However, off-site training can be a better option when the training goal is developing new skills and preparing employees for future positions, challenges, or responsibilities. One of the advantages of off-site training is that employees are not interrupted while they are being trained, which helps them focus on the capabilities being taught. Off-site training may also be necessary if space or resources are not available on site. For example, many experiential training programs now have outdoors components that require rugged locations and special gear to provide opportunities for bonding, problem solving, and collaboration. Formal education opportunities may be offered to employees for career development purposes, and they can be provided either on or off site. Formal education can be in the form of workshops, courses offered by consultants, or classes offered by universities. Some of the programs offered at universities have residential requirements while others, such as this course, are entirely online. Many organizations now provide their employees with full or Education Versus Professional Certification 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 176 10/27/15 1:39 PM Section 7.2 The Training Process partial tuition reimbursement as an employment benefit. Larger organizations sometimes have arrangements with local universities to provide on-site classes equivalent to classes taught to students at the campus. Under this arrangement, employees can take their classes together and at times that do not interfere with working hours. Professional certifications are offered by specialized organizations or associations that are accredited to train and assess professionals in their areas of specialization. Holding a professional certificate means that an employee is well equipped with the knowledge, experience, and skills necessary to perform job duties effectively. A professional certification can sometimes be one of the requirements for employment or practice. The links below provide examples of certifications required to practice engineering, medicine, and law. Web Links The Professional Engineering Exam http://ncees.org/exams/pe-exam/ The American Board of Medical Specialties http://www.abms.org/ The National Council of Bar Examiners http://www.ncbex.org/ Employers initiate training for many purposes. They may want to provide career development opportunities, prepare employees for future responsibilities or positions, develop new KSAOs in workers for their current roles, or help employees become more effective. Employers may also want to prepare new employees for their new roles or want to use training as a remedial course of action to deal with performance deficiencies. However, employees may also initiate or request training that is not required or recommended by the organization, or they may even pursue training and development opportunities at their own time and expense. The fact that employees move in and out of multiple careers during their lifetime has made many of them come to realize that they need to take the initiative and generate for themselves opportunities for training, development, and growth. Both employees and employers now value and appreciate the desire and pursuit of lifelong learning in their current and potential employees. Employee-Initiated Versus Employer-Initiated Training Self-paced training gives learners access to the training material on demand, any time they want, so that they can take a training course at their own pace. The primary advantage of selfpaced training is its flexibility. This flexibility gives trainees the ability to fit the training into their busy schedules and allows them to take as much time as they need to master challenging Self-Paced Versus Facilitated Training 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 177 10/27/15 1:39 PM The Training Process Section 7.2 content. However, if learners do not possess good computer skills or self-motivation, they may not be able to benefit much from self-paced training. Moreover, it is usually costly and time consuming to develop high-quality self-paced materials. However, once they are developed, the cost per trainee becomes exponentially lower as the initial development costs are spread out over a larger number of trainees. Noe (2008) identifies five issues that need to be considered in developing a successful selfpaced training: A thorough job analysis to identify the tasks that must be covered. Trainee-centered learning objectives directly related to the task and indicating what information is important, what actions the trainee should take, and what the trainee should master. Content for the learning package based on the trainee-centered learning objectives including scripts for videos and text for computer delivered training. Content broken down into smaller modules that always begin with the objectives that will be covered and include practices for each module and a method to enable the trainee to evaluate his/her learning. Evaluation packages that include evaluation of the trainee and evaluation of the learning package. On the other hand, facilitated training has a specific date and time. The host organization sets a schedule for the training in which an instructor or a facilitator will be available to train the trainees. Facilitated training usually requires a minimum number of learners, which may sometimes be hard to reach. In addition, well-equipped trainers must be available to deliver an effective training program, especially if it is facilitated online. Some types of training may be required for all employees in accordance with legal rules and regulations enforced by agencies such as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). Examples include safety training and sexual harassment training. Other training may be required for ongoing recertification. An organization may also mandate training to keep its employees' KSAOs up to date, prepare them to meet future goals and objectives, or resolve performance deficiencies. Mandatory Versus Optional Training However, many organizations also offer their employees a wide range of optional training to choose from, based on their interest and availability. Optional training may cover technical or interpersonal topics that would be beneficial for professional growth. It may also cover other areas of interest. Health and fitness are becoming a common focus of optional training in many organizations. Face-to-face training is conducted in classrooms. Employees and facilitators have to be physically present. Face-to-face training may be effective when interaction with instructors and peers is conducive to higher-quality learning. However, it may not be as effective for a large number of trainees. Online training, also referred to as e-learning, can be accessed anywhere, anytime, using the Internet. Some online training is conducted using an organizational intranet. Face-to-Face Versus Online Training 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 178 10/27/15 1:39 PM The Training Process Section 7.2 It has long been believed that in-class training is more interactive than online training. However, research shows that this may not be the case (Maki, Maki, Patterson, & Whittaker, 2000). Programs such as Blackboard and WebCT have enabled trainees to have virtual chat as well as electronic file exchange, which make online training interactive. A special type of e-learning is virtual reality, which also gives trainees the opportunity to see and examine objects in a three-dimensional perspective. According to ATD, young workers are more likely to prefer online training. Its many advantages include lower costs per trainee, flexibility, and access to a greater number of employees from a broader geographic area. Online training may be synchronous (at the same time, as a group) or asynchronous (at each employee's convenience). Asynchronous online training also lends itself well to self-pacing, which allows trainees to take their time and master challenging skills. In general, blending a variety of training methods is recommended to cater to the needs, schedules, and learning preferences of different groups of trainees (Mirocha, 2005; Rossett, 2006). For example, safety training may include the following steps: An online, self-paced component to cover the basics A formal, instructor-led component to address questions A hands-on component for on-the-job training Informal mentoring by the trainee's supervisor to ensure correct and consistent application on the job Similarly, a sales training may combine face-to-face interpersonal skills training, online technical training on the organization's products and services, and shadowing a more experienced salesperson in the field. After training has been delivered, it is critical that organizations assess whether it has met the needs and objectives it was designed for. Two critical decisions are made at the training evaluation phase: Training Evaluation: A Multi-Level Perspective What to evaluate When and who to evaluate To determine what to evaluate, the most widely recognized training evaluation framework is Kirkpatrick's model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2009), which describes four levels of assessment: 1. Reaction 2. Learning 3. Behavior 4. Results At the first level, trainee reactions to the training are measured, typically through surveys administered immediately after training is completed. Basic satisfaction with various aspects of the training are emphasized at this level, such as the training venue, the instructor's style, and the training materials. 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 179 10/27/15 1:39 PM Section 7.2 The Training Process While trainees' perceptions and feelings about the training are important, it is even more i mportant to assess how much learning actually took place. Kirkpatrick's second level of a ssessment addresses learning, typically through some form of testing that examines the t rainees' degrees of mastery for what they have learned. For example, trainees may be asked to recall, reiterate, or discuss what they have learned. They may also be asked to apply it to a scenario or use the information to analyze a hypothetical situation, make a decision, or solve a problem. In Kirkpatrick's third level of assessment, change in work behavior is assessed to see if the training has produced the desired change in the way employees do their jobs. For training to be effective, it is also crucial that its impact extend beyond the training to affect actual behavior on the job. For example, production workers can be assessed after training for increased speed or quality. Salespersons can be assessed for more frequent cross-selling efforts for the organization's products, better scheduling of sales calls, or increased courtesy toward clients. Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock In Kirkpatrick's model of training evaluation, an employee may be asked to analyze a hypothetical problem that will help assess what he or she has learned during training. Kirkpatrick's fourth and most important level of training assessment is the actual results of training, or the impact of training on the bottom line. Unfortunately, this impact is seldom assessed. It is important that trainees react positively to the training, learn from it, and alter their work behaviors based on what they have learned. Effective training should also lead to a positive impact on the organization's profitability, efficiency, and effectiveness; however, it is often difficult to quantify the dollar value added from training. Difficulties in measurement lead many organizations to ignore this crucial assessment level. Unfortunately, in today's tight economy, an inability to quantify the benefits of training and development often leads to significant cuts in budget allocations toward these important human investments. Human resource departments may also be perceived by the organization's various stakeholders as lacking accountability for scarce resources, which reflects poorly on HR departments' ability to contribute to strategic organizational goals. Although Kirkpatrick's model is the most widely used, there are other models for training evaluation, such as Kaufman's five-level model, which adds the societal impact, and the Kirkpatrick-Phillips model, which adds return on investment in training as a fifth level of evaluation. There are three approaches to determining when and who to evaluate: Post-measurement Pre-/post-measurement Pre-/post-measurement with a control group In post-measurement assessment, the effectiveness of the training is measured afterward by verifying that trainees' performances will now meet expectations. However, sometimes 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 180 10/27/15 1:39 PM Forms of Training and Development Section 7.3 it is possible that employees' performances would have met the same standards without training; HR departments may therefore not be able to use the post-measurement approach to interpret results accurately or attribute positive results directly to the training. Just because a group of trainees are assessed to be superior performers after training does not mean that the training is the reason for their superior performance. They could have been higher performers to begin with due to effective employee selection and placement. The pre-/post-measurement method tests trainees both before and after the training. If they measure higher on the desired outcomes after the training than they did before the training, it can be argued that the difference in results can be attributed directly to the training. However, like post-measurement, this method does not prove that training is the source of improved performance. It can be argued that trainees' performance levels would have improved without any training, simply with practice and more experience over time. Alternative interpretations may also include changes in economic conditions, organizational culture, or reward systems. Moreover, people also tend to perform slightly better when they know they are being observed or tested; this common phenomenon is known as the H awthorne effect. The pre-/post-measurement with a control group method tackles the deficiencies of the first two methods by comparing the trainees to a control groupanother group of workers with the same level of skills who do not go through the training. The trainees and the control group are tested both before the training and after it. Often, to account for the Hawthorne effect, the control group is given an unrelated intervention. If the trained group shows more pre-/postmeasurement improvement than the control group, then this difference is a good indication that the training was effective. The pre-/post-measurement method is also useful to compare alternative types of training or other interventions. For example, an organization may want to resolve performance deficiencies within a particular function, such as production. It may therefore design a training intervention, a modified reward program, and a job redesign initiative. The organization can then randomly assign the workforce into four groups: a group that receives training, a group that receives the modified reward program, a group whose jobs would be redesigned, and a control group that receives an unrelated intervention. Each of the four groups should be assessed before and after their designated interventions, and the group that shows the most improvement would indicate the superiority of that group's respective intervention. 7.3 Forms of Training and Development Training and development can take numerous forms to serve different audiences and functions within the organization. Organizations have expanded their use of training and d evelopment beyond traditional training methods, including more creative approaches or more ambitious training objectives, such as meeting employees' needs for personal and professional growth. This section provides a glimpse of some of the commonly used forms of training and development. 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 181 10/27/15 1:39 PM Forms of Training and Development Section 7.3 Orientation, also known as onboarding, is specifically designed for new employees. This process familiarizes new employees with the environment by introducing them to their jobs; their managers; their coworkers; and the organization's structure, culture, and processes. Orientation and onboarding can also help new employees reach the desired performance levels sooner by accelerating their development and moving them faster along the learning curve. An effective orientation can also help the organization build a positive image among new employees. Along with operating managers and supervisors, HR professionals are often the organization members who carry out orientations, although many organizations today have formal orientation and onboarding programs that are delivered by training staff or online. For a great example of extensive orientation programs, visit the web site below, which outlines the orientation program for new George Doyle/Stockbyte/Thinkstock members of the nursing team at Yale- Orientation helps new employees reach desired New Haven Hospital. This program spans performance levels sooner and gives them a 12 weeks to 6 months, depending on spe- better idea of what the organization expects of cialization and prior experience. them. Orientation and Onboarding Web Link Yale-New Haven Hospital Orientation Program for Nurses http://careers.ynhh.org/career-opportunities/nursing-staff/nursing-programs.aspx Technical training is job-related, and it usually focuses on the technicalities of the job (or hard skills), whereas nontechnical training is not job-related (and focuses on soft skills). Its purpose is to enhance employees' skills in other areas, such as team-building, organizational, management, problem-solving, decision-making, or communication skills. Technical and Nontechnical Training Nontechnical training can also be designed to educate employees about other cultures. Crosscultural training can help global firms send their employees on international assignments, and it is critical to global strategic success. To avoid culture shock, not only employees but also their families must grow familiar with cultural differences; training can help people 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 182 10/27/15 1:39 PM Forms of Training and Development Section 7.3 adjust to a culture that differs from their own (Yamazaki & Hayes, 2004). The same holds true for foreign employees who will be transferred to the United States. Nontechnical training can help expand employees' horizons and prepare them for challenges in current roles as well as future roles beyond their immediate technical job responsibilities. Nontechnical training can also help build and enhance organizational culture and align employees' competencies and skill sets with the organization's mission, vision, and values. Ongoing professional development provides employees with training throughout their tenure with the organization. This ongoing training enables employees to develop the knowledge and skills needed not only to perform their jobs more effectively but also to grow and develop professionally throughout their careers. Ongoing professional development can also help employees develop basic skills such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. Almost 40 million people in the United Stated have a learning disability, which makes it challenging to develop basic skills throughout K-12 education (Ketter, 2006; Kalleba, 2007; Salopek, 2007). Ongoing Professional Development Mentoring and coaching are two methods of employee development. Mentoring helps an employee, also called a mentee or a protg, to develop his or her skills by interacting with a mentor, who is a more experienced coworker or supervisor. Mentoring can either be planned by an organization or can follow an employee's effort to seek a mentor (Fagenson, 1992; T urban & Daugherty, 1994) or a mentor's desire to help and develop the less experienced employee. Mentors should generally possess good interpersonal skills, and they should be trained to be able to perform their duties effectively. In addition, they also should be evaluated by the organization (Eby, Butts, Lockwood, & Simon, 2004). Mentoring and Coaching Coaching is the hiring of a peer, manager, or outside consultant for the purpose of training one or more employees. The coach's role is broader than a mentor's. It is to motivate the employees as well as help develop their skills. Coaching can be done in many ways, including one-on-one coaching, which then enables employees to be on their own, helps them to learn for themselves, provides them with resources, or offers a combination of these approaches. Executive coaching is on the rise as a training and development approach for senior management candidates. Traditional, more structured approaches are not as effective as executive coaching to develop the higherlevel skills necessary for these strategic roles. For Marcin Balcerzak/iStockphoto/Thinkstock coaching to be effective, it is best to identify areas that need improvement and then set goals for this Executive coaching is an effective improvement (Smither, London, Flautt, Vargas, & training and development approach for senior management. Kucine, 2003). 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 183 10/27/15 1:39 PM Forms of Training and Development Section 7.3 Chapter 3 offered job rotationthat is, assigning employees to different jobsas a way to design jobs with a greater variety of activities and less boredom. Job rotation is also one of the techniques used for employee training and development. Through it, an employee is able to work in different functional areas on different assignments within an organization; the employee is therefore given the chance to experience other parts of the organization. Job rotation helps employees extend their experience, widen their understanding, and enhance their skills (Campion, Cheraskin, & Stevens, 1994). Organizations may also rotate employees through different job assignments in different countries (Weinstein, 2009). Job Rotation and Temporary Transfers Temporary transfers are similar to job rotation in that an employee gets assigned to a position in another part of the organization. However, temporary transfers are more likely to be one-time occurrences, while rotations usually include a predetermined series of job changes. A temporary transfer may be lateral, which means that the employee will have the same level of responsibility. It also can be upward, in the form of a temporary increase in responsibilities and authority. For example, self-managed teams may designate a leader for each project assigned to the team; this designation constitutes a temporary upward transfer for the leader, who will then return to being a member of the team when the project is over. Transfers can also take the form of a temporary downward move because of poor performance or to allow an employee to build different skills. International assignments are also considered a form of training and development. They give employees opportunities to learn how to deal with different cultures and different economic, social, and political systems. These assignments also give employees opportunities to develop their managerial and leadership skills. International assignments also provide employees with opportunities for upward mobility in the organization when they come back; these assignments are recognized as one of the most effective ways to prepare future global leaders (Pope, 2009). International Assignments However, international assignments also have some costs and disadvantages and involve some sacrifices by employees who go overseas. For instance, intensive and costly training is necessary before an international assignment to prepare employees and their families to adapt to the challenges in the new host country and to help lessen cultural shock. Problems may persist even after this training and may result in failure at assigned tasks or a premature return to the home country, which amount to a loss in the organization's investment in training. These losses could have been avoided had the organization hired a qualified local resident for the foreign operation instead. Living abroad may also cause employees to miss important and noteworthy events at home, both personally and professionally. Leadership development can be defined as \"expanding the collective capacities of organizational members to engage effectively in leadership roles and processes\" (Day, 2000, p. 582). The need for leadership development has increased along with globalization and c ompetitiveness. It is therefore crucial to develop the knowledge and skills of those who are in managerial positions to be able to contribute to future organizational performance. The Leadership Development and Management Training 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 184 10/27/15 1:39 PM Forms of Training and Development Section 7.3 leadership development process is also integral to succession planning and career planning. Organizations can effectively prepare a cadre of future leaders by assessing the needs for filling future management positions, evaluating potential candidates' current performances, and then proactively imparting the required knowledge and developing the needed skills (Kristick, 2009). The overall purpose of a leadership development program should be to help the organization achieve its goals and objectives. Therefore, organizational strategy and goals must form the basis of the design, development, delivery, and evaluation of a training program. Leadership development can be offered through a combination of the methods and approaches discussed earlier, including in-house programs, professional programs, university programs, executive coaching, and mentoring. Leadership development can also be offered through action learning, in which participants work on real business challenges while reflecting on progress and lessons learned (Czarnowsky, 2008). Leadership development can also be achieved through a special form of job rotation that is often referred to as management training. A management training program is a structured program in which a high-potential trainee is groomed for a management position through a carefully designed sequence of short-term job transfers and rotations, gaining experience with various parts of the business, often with increasing levels of challenge and responsibility. When the trainee graduates from the program, he or she is usually ready to assume a leadership position. For example, Unilever has a well-known 2 to 3 year management training program to develop capable local leaders within their global operations. The program is designed for young, recent college graduates who show high leadership potential. The program promises them an accelerated career path to a senior management position after they complete the program successfully. Web Link Unilever's Future Leaders Program http://www.unileverme.com/careers-jobs/graduates/uflp/index.aspx Leadership development programs vary in their approaches, methods, level of formality, and structure. Regardless of these features, a leadership development program should emphasize realism, practicality, and applicationgiving trainees the opportunity to analyze and solve real organizational problems (Locke & Tarantino, 2006; Patton & Pratt, 2002; Zenger, Ulrich, & Smallwood, 2002). Traditionally, the term career referred to a set of positions an employee occupied within one organization, often taking a progressive, upward direction. However, this is no longer the case due to the constant changes organizations go through. Examples of these changes include downsizing, restructuring, business process reengineering, and the resulting frequency of employees changing jobs and employers. Workers are now moving more toward a protean career model: workers are now the people who direct the progress of their careers based on their own interests, goals, and values (Hall, 2004). This career model is also related to the notions of career resiliency and the changing psychological employment contract discussed Career Development 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 185 10/27/15 1:39 PM Section 7.4 Linking Training and Development to the HRM Process in Chapter 2. As a result of these changes, workers are seeking to continually develop new skills, especially since most careers these days rely on a broader knowledge base (Arthur, C laman, & DeFillippi, 1995; Schawbel, 2009). 7.4 Linking Training and Development to the HRM Process As was depicted in the top half of Figure 7.1, training and development constitute one of the eight critical practices in the HRM process. This is because the purpose of strategic HRM is to help an organization achieve its goals and objectives through people. Therefore, training and development should help improve organizational competencies and performance. This improvement can be realized by viewing training needs in association with strategic organizational plans and prioritizing them accordingly (Clarke, 2003; Reed & Vakola, 2006). HR planning, job analysis and design, recruitment, selection, and performance appraisal should inform and be informed by the organization's goals and strategies. Training needs assessment, design, development, delivery, and evaluation should likewise inform and be informed by the other strategic HR processesadding value to the organization's efficiency, effectiveness, and competitiveness. A Moment in the Life of an HR Manager Who Should You Send to Training? Andrew is a sales manager at a department store called Living in Style, Inc. This morning, he received the following memo from the Claudia Moore, the training manager at the head office. Memo for Living in Style, Inc. Andrew is excited about this new training program. However, he has several concerns: 1. Andrew does not recall that anyone consulted him on what training his sales force needed. So he is unsure if the training will be relevant for their specific needs, especially since his store is in a relatively small town where he and his staff know most of the customers by name. 2. Andrew also believes that he has some of the best and most dedicated sales representatives in the companyand maybe even in the industryso unless this training program offers new information, it may be a waste of their time. 3. What Andrew finds even more confusing is that in the last corporate meeting management expressed concerns about the increasing default rates on credit and layaway sales. Reducing default rates is now one of the strategic goals of the organization. Because of his staff's excellent and personal relationships with customers, his store was among the lowest on default rates. If that's the case, he wonders why the sales training is promoting credit and layaway sales instead of emphasizing loyalty programs and other ways to establish stronger and longer-lasting relationships with customers. (continued) 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 186 10/27/15 1:39 PM Section 7.4 Linking Training and Development to the HRM Process A Moment in the Life of an HR Manager Who Should You Send to Training? (continued) 4. Another of Andrew's concerns is the moral dilemma of promoting more spending in general when the economy is in recession. He sees the potential for this encouragement to have an adverse impact on customers' financial and psychological well-being. He sees it as contradictory and hypocritical to train salespeople to offer superior customer service to sell more products and cross-sell other products that the customer does not necessarily need with no consideration of the customers' finances. Instead, he prefers to train his sales staff to better analyze the needs and finances of one customer and then sell him or her the product that fits those parameters. He believes that this strategy is both more ethical and more conducive to satisfied, loyal customers who will return to the store in the long run. However, Andrew understands that sending someone to this training program is a requirement. The problem is, whom should he send? He's considering three candidates: Joe White is the new sales representative, fresh out of college, with no sales experience. Joe is the lowest-paid and currently the slowest and least effective representative due to his lack of experience. + Advantages of sending Joe: He'll definitely learn something new, and the lost productivity is the least compared to sending one of the higher performers. - Disadvantages of sending Joe: Joe is young and impressionable. If he comes back indoctrinated in those morally questionable selling techniques and ends up outselling others and making more money, that success could have a negative impact on the store culture. It may also upset the other salespeople to know that Andrew selected Joe to go to this training when they are all overdue for time away from the store and when they might enjoy this apparently fun event. Doug Green is the longest-tenured, most experienced sales representative with the highest sales volume across all stores. However, Doug is very outspoken against corporate greed; he prides himself on never taking advantage of customers or selling them something they don't really need. + Advantages of sending Doug: Doug will never fall for the newest trends and management fads. He will question everything, which may push the company to reevaluate its plans and strategies. His attendance will not compromise the store culture because he will discern the best new messages to communicate when he comes back. Sending Doug will also give him good visibility at the head office. Since Doug is overdue for a promotion, Andrew appreciates that this visibility will be good for Doug's career progress. - Disadvantages of sending Joe: Doug will never change his ways, nor does he need to, in Andrew's opinion. So sending him to this training program is a pointless waste of the company's resources. Sparing Doug for a week will also definitely hurt the store's sales volume. Emma Brown has many years of experience in sales in a variety of industries, including working for competitors in the past. But she has only six months of experience with Living in Style. Her background and KSAOs are impressive, but she has a difficult personality, tends to be critical of everything and everyone, and tends to create conflicts with coworkers and customers. She has said many times that she feels overqualified for her job and wants opportunities for development and career advancement. (continued) 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 187 10/27/15 1:39 PM Opportunities, Challenges, and Recent Trends in Training and Development Section 7.5 A Moment in the Life of an HR Manager Who Should You Send to Training? (continued) + Advantages of sending Emma: Emma will perceive this training as an opportunity for development and career advancement. Sending her to the training will also give the store a break from her toxic attitudes. And who knowsmaybe her attitudes will change, or she'll get noticed at the head office and they'll decide to keep her at a position that requires her level of assertiveness. - Disadvantages of sending Emma: Emma may have conflicts with others at the training, which could reflect poorly on the store's image at the head office and compromise Andrew's leadership. The training may also indoctrinate Emma in ideals that are wrong from Andrew's perspective, which Emma seems more likely to adopt than Doug would be. Andrew also feels threatened by the possibility that the head office may consider Emma as a replacement for him, Andrew, if she seems more open to the training's bottom-line value system. Discussion Questions 1.\t\u0007 you were in Andrew's position, which representative would you choose? Justify your If answer. Optional: Work independently, and then compare notes with the rest of your group or with the class. Make your case for the sales representative of your choice, trying to win as many votes as possible for your choice of representative and discourage your classmates from voting for others. Find out which representative received the most votes. 2. If you were in Claudia's position, how would you go about the training process to ensure that the program contributes to the organization's performance and effectiveness and that the best-suited candidates are sent to the training? Optional: Work independently, and then compare notes with the rest of your group or the class. 3. Integrate your answers into a proposed training process that follows the structure adopted in this chapter. Start with training needs assessment, going on to the design, development, and delivery, and finally the evaluation. How can each stage be improved to ensure that the most effective training program is offered to the sales representatives who are most likely to benefit from it? 7.5\u0007 Opportunities, Challenges, and Recent Trends in Training and Development Training and development are costly and time consuming. Moreover, the fast rate of change in the business environment requires continuous updating of training topics and technologies. However, when utilized strategically, training and development can offer numerous opportunities, not only in terms of disseminating knowledge and polishing employee skills, but also in terms of increasing their motivation and loyalty to the organization. The costs of training and development have been increasing. As a result, many organizations have cut their training budgets, especially during the recent economic slowdown. Costs are also one of the reasons why the outsourcing of training has not increased significantly (Van Economic Considerations: The Increasing Costs of Training 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. mor82551_07_c07_167-194.indd 188 10/27/15 1:39 PM Opportunities, Challenges, and Recent Trends in Training and Development Section 7.5 Buren, 2005). While many training programs may be more effectively administered externally through experienced third-party trainers or specialized entities, the costs of doing so are becoming prohibitive. For example, many organizations have significantly reduced or eliminated their tuition reimbursement programs, although these programs have been shown to reduce turnover and facilitate talent retention, provided that they are accompanied with promotions and career progress (Benson, Finegold, & Mohrman, 2004). Realizing the importance of training for employee motivation and productivity, organizations are facing the challenge of finding more cost-effective ways to deliver quality training. Organizations are now attempting to cut costs through using in-house trainers and facilities. For example, experienced employees can mentor less experienced coworkers or provide on-thejob training. However, this opportunity comes at the sometimes high cost of the reduced productivity of the more experienced employees who spend time training others. Online training is discussed next; it is another cost-effective alternative to more expensive face-to-face training options. Online training requires the use of the Internet or an intranet, and it can be accessed from anywhere in the world. As discussed earlier, online training is on the rise. For example, in a survey, 60% of the organizations surveyed had online training initiatives, and 86% placed a h