For each of the following descriptions of studies, identify the independent and dependent variables involved, the levels of the independent variable, and the nature of each independent variable (between‐subjects or within‐subjects; manipulated or subject variables).

Also, describe the number of independent variables and levels of each by using the factorial notation system (e.g., 2 × 3), and use Figure 8.6 to identify the design.

1. On the basis of scores on the Jenkins Activity Survey, three groups of subjects are identified: Type A, Type B, and intermediate.

An equal number of subjects in each group are given one of two tasks to perform. One of the tasks is to sit quietly in a small room and estimate, in the absence of a clock, when 2 full minutes have elapsed. The second task is to make the same estimate, except that while in the small room, the subject will be playing a hand‐held video game.

2. College students in a cognitive mapping study are asked to use a direction finder to point accurately to three unseen locations that vary in distance from the lab. One is a nearby campus location, one is a nearby city, and the third is a distant city. Half of the participants perform the task in a windowless room with a compass indicating the direction of north. The remaining participants perform the task in the same room without a compass.

3. In a study of touch sensitivity, two‐point thresholds are measured on 10 skin locations for an equal number of blind and sighted adults. Half of the participants perform the task in the morning and half in the evening.

4. Three groups of preschoolers are put into a study of delay of gratification in which the length of the delay is varied.

Children in all three groups complete a puzzle task. One group is told that as payment they can have $1 now or $3 tomorrow. The second group chooses between $1 now and $3 two days from now, and the third group chooses between $1 now and $3 three days from now. For each of the three groups, half of the children solve an easy puzzle and half solve a difficult puzzle. The groups are formed in such a way that the average parents’ income is the same for children in each group.

5. In a study of visual illusions and size perception, participants adjust a dial that alters one of two stimuli. The goal is to make the two stimuli appear equal in size, and the size of the error in this judgment is measured on each trial. Each participant completes 40 trials. On half of the trials, the pairs of stimuli are in color; on the other half, they are in black and white. For both the colored and the black‐and‐white stimuli, half are presented at a distance of 10 feet from the participant and half are presented at 20 feet.

6. In a study of reading comprehension, sixth‐grade students read a short story about baseball. The students are divided into two groups based on their knowledge of baseball. Within each group, half of the students are high scorers on a test of verbal IQ, while the remaining students are low scorers.

7. In a study on stereotyping, students are asked to read an essay said to be written by either a psychiatric patient or a mental health professional. Half of the subjects given each essay are told the writer is a male and half are told the writer is a female. Subjects are randomly assigned to the four groups and asked to judge the quality of the essay.

8. In a maze learning study, the performance (number of trials to learn the maze) of wild and lab‐reared albino rats is compared.

Half of each group of rats is randomly assigned to an alley maze; others learn an elevated maze.