-small to moderate effect -for women, stereotype threat most effective if cues to group membership were subtle , rather than blatant privileges what does the research say? meta-analyses effect on women & and minorities love prescriptions would you go out with me tonight?

what does the research say? meta-analyses effect on women & and minorities

exam 2 gender Flashcards

members of negatively stereotyped groups often feel anxiety about the possibility of conforming negative group stereotypes -this anxiety is turn, can determine performance in high stakes testing situations

requires knowledge of the stereotypes, but not belief -affects individuals is identified with the domain -ironically often leads to behavior that matches the stereotype

Male and female students in a calculus class are given "cover story" that they are participating in two different studies• "Study 1" - Watching commercials• Half watch commercials with female stereotype• Half watch commercials with counter-stereotype • "Study 2" - Math test (12 difficult math questions

Reminder of any stereotype cues other stereotypes, e.g. women are not good at math

-small to moderate effect -for women, stereotype threat most effective if cues to group membership were subtle , rather than blatant

modest effect -larger in world regions with greater gender inequality -in the US larger in southern and midwestern states vs northeast and west

yes -men can experience gender stereotype threat if told they were taking at test to measure social sensitivity vs info processing -white man can score lower -on math test, if told Asian people typically do better -on athletics test, if told black people typically do better

how does this work? 1.stress arousal 2.performace monitoring (narrows attention) 3. efforts to suppress negative thoughts and emotions -easily summoned, but also fairly easily dispelled -priming Asian identity among Asian women leads them to performing better on math problems -discussing stereotype threat

privilege removes barriers and stressors that members of subordinate groups may encounter regularly -ubiquity and invisibility: can be difficult to detect because it could be the absence of stressful or unpleasant experiences -cisgender privileges -heterosexual privileges -male privileges -male privileges

culture, race, class, sexual orientation also influence the content of gender stereotypes -multiple identities construct novel experiences that are unique

Results:1. Minority women had the most unique qualities• Stereotypes are NOT merely the sum of stereotypes about individual social categories!2. Minority men had qualities representative of the overarching racial group3. White women and white men had more qualities in common with stereotypes of both "women" and "men" Most powerful member of social groups serve as prototypes—mosttypical cognitive representation of a given category (cultural default)33

Some women have significantly more power, resources, and status than some men do

Gender prototypes assume heterosexuality• For gay men:• "Gay Black men" seen as most dissimilar to the group "men"• Label "gay" reduced stereotype negativity, particularly for Black men

when black and latino men are described as gay vs not they become sterotypically whitened and less sterotypical of their own racial groups

Any exception we find we put in a subtype and set an exceptions to the overall stereotypic rules -we allow exceptions to individuals bending the gender stereotypes by creating subtypes -subgroups can maintain or combat the general stereotypes !

Individuals who belong to 2+subordinate groups will experience more discrimination than individuals who belong to one subordinate group

Experiences of people with multiple subordinate identities are sometimes ignored or disregarded, leading them to feel socially invisible• This may have an unfortunate but protective function of helping fly under the radar...

Methods :• Watch a conversation with a diverse group• Question: Who said what?

White participants more likely to misattribute statements by Black women to someone else• Similar effect for Asian men • Less prototypical for their race= more invisible

negative attitudes towards induvial based solely on their sex combined with institutional and cultural practices that support the unequal status of different sex categories

daily dairy study -women experienced 1-2 impactful sexist instances per week -leds to decreased comfort & self esteem, increased anger & depression checklist study -checklist of possible gender stereotyped events -M & F reported 2+ gender prejudice events, on average per day -men less likely to be directed targets -women report higher levels of distress

1.ambivalent sexism 2.social dominance theory 3.system justification theory

framework for understanding gender relations and sex based power differences across cultures

antagonistic and derogatory beliefs about women and their roles

subjectively positive and well intentioned beliefs about women and their importance but patronizing

1. Endorsing BS more likely to endorse HS and other ideologies legitimizing gender inequalities 2.Socitites with highest endorsement of BS have greatest hostility to nontraditional gender roles for women 3.undermines resistance to inequality 4.Negative impact on mental and physical health

no, and in fact, Hostile and benevolent ideologies complement one another -people typically direct hostile and benevolent sexism at different types of female behaviors HS-> targets powerful women BS-> addresses traditional women

help maintain smooth functioning and interdependence -positively correlated -both rooted in belief that women are less competent -when they work together hostile and benevolent sexism serves to help people to view the unequal gender hierarchy as fair

research question how do store employees view pregnant women when applying for job vs asking for help?

when applying for a job subtle discrimination and rudeness-hostile sexism -when asking for help: positive assistance greater assistance- benevolent sexism

mirrors those towards women -hostile resentment towards men viewed as arrogant, juvenile sexually predatory

positive correlation of HS & BS -those who endorse HS & BS for women also tend to endorse HS & BS for men

across cultures, human societies have group based social hierarchies -social dominance orientation -belief that inequality is right and fair some people and groups should have more status than others

inequality is fair because some groups should have more status than others

reject hierarchies

legitimizing myths and moral/intellectual justification to maintain this -correlated with racism and sexism -predicted negative attitudes toward gay and lesbians

lower in SDO: occupations that benefit members of subordinate groups higher SDO: protect interest of high status groups male=higher SDO compared to females, across time

system justification theory: all people are motivated to justify the sociopolitical system in which they live to avoid instability uncertainty and lack of control high status group: want to maintain the system -can lead to low status group endorsing more favorable stereotypes about the high status group over their own

It can reduce uncertainty, anxiety, and guilt• It can instill a sense of control• Want to minimize further losses in a system that already disadvantages them • Fear of retaliation• Motivation for high-status groups: Keep intergroup relations conflict free, if possible

is the assumption that heterosexuality is the universal and that other sexualities are deviation from this norm

would vote for gay or lesbian candidate 76% in 2019 • 59% in 1999 • 25% in 1978 -36 countries allow same-sex marriage, including the US

Less research on attitudes toward bisexuals • More negative than attitudes toward gay/lesbian • Heterosexual, gay, lesbian share assumption of" mononormativity" (i.e., attract to only one sex)

Revulsion and irrational fear of transgendered and transsexual persons, cross-dressers, and feminine men and masculine women associated with -Religiosity • Conservatism • Authoritarianism• Male sex • Being uncomfortable with ambiguity/need for closure

Intersex and transgender individuals are at increased risk for discrimination• Work problems: 30%• Family violence: 10%• Attempted suicide: 40%• Live in poverty: 29%

Violence and stigma higher in countries with more legal and social exclusion• Greater prejudice toward transgender women than transgender men• One killing a week since the beginning of 2019 in the US

Best predictor of positive attitudes: contact with LGBT

Canvasing Intervention: Broockman & Kalla, 2016 • Sought to reduce transgender prejudice with a door-to-door canvassing in a randomized trial• 10-minute conversation that encouraged active perspective-taking• Results: • Reduction in prejudice for at least 3 months • Both transgender and non-transgender canvassers were effective• Increased support for a non-discrimination law

International Study of Sexism (Brandt, 2011)• 57 different countries over 3 years looking at national-level of endorsement of sexist beliefs and national indices of gender equality • Results:• Sexist attitudes at Time 1 predicted decreases in national gender equality at Time 2 • No difference by sex • Sexist attitudes might produce behaviors that harm women physically or psychologically

Some Consequences of Gender Stereotyping 1. If a culture values a stereotype, people feel pressure to conform to i t; those who do not conform can face punishment 2. Self-fulfilling prophesy 3. Benevolent and hostile sexism 4. Stereotype threat

social network: extended circle of people with whom individuals regularly interact gender differences : women tend to have more members in their social network AND spend more time them than men -women give and recieive more social support than man

extended family and kin pay a larger role in social networks of Latino, black, native American compared to white people

regardless of gender most people want trustworthy and dependable friends who are similar to them gender differences in same sex friendships -women: more shared emotions, disclosure, social support men: more shared activity and non personal conversation topics

heterosexual and gay men have higher expectations for straight female friends -lesbians had lowest friendship expectations for straight male friends -men regardless of orientation view women as a greater source of emotional support than men

Hypothesis 1: • Male gender role discourages certain forms of same-sex closeness • Homosocial Perspective: Form comradeships with joint activity, teamwork, and group norms • Emotional restraint and homophobia

No difference in intimacy of men and women's same sex friendship• Self-disclosure isn't the only way to measure emotional intimacy

Survey of college students (Felmlee et al., 2012)• 81.6% said men and women can be friends• 19% of women said "maybe" vs. 10% of men• US college students reported ~4 close cross-gender friends • WOMEN: for physical protection• MEN: in hopes that relationship will become sexual

Method:• 25,185 Ps completed a survey• Results: • Main finding: Not much differences in # of same- or cross- gender friends based on sexual orientation, however... • Heterosexuals have more same-gender friends • Lesbians and gay men have more cross-gender friends• Bisexual men and woman report more female friends (than straight men) and more male friends (than straight women and lesbians)

Help meet need to belong -chosen families: friend circles that stand in for biological families -especially important for sexual minority men -sexual orientation does not affect # or levels of satisfaction with existing friendships

transgender friendships -experience of microaggression -benefits of LGBT + friends shared community, nonjudgment, opportunities to educate others about transgender issues, opportunities for sexual partners -some research indicate that transgender adults have more diverse friendship networks than do LGBT individuals

sex differences replicated across cultures men: physical attractiveness, younger age Women: good financial prospects, ambitious similarities -a partner who is dependable, stable and loving -more equal in valuing attractiveness (especially in short term partners)

LGB relationships -do not differ much by sexual orientation -both gay and straight males prioritze lookes more than lesbian and straight women -lesbians prioritize earning potential less than straight women

doesn't not differ much by gender identity -MTF sought looks, satisfying sexual relationship AND partners with resources, ambition, and social status -FTM sought greater dependability

-women: mating with low quality partner= riskier for women--> women should prefer partners with resources and protection

men should desire female partners who display childcare and homemaking abilities to look after offspring

unpaid domestic labor primarily performed by women, so they benefit from a resource-rich partner

since they occupy wage earning roles, they can benefit from a partner who can perform domestic duties

recent increase in research, but largely unnoticed by legal institutions -Asexuality: absence of sexual attraction Antonsen et al., (2020): 4000+ participants• Results: • Higher proportions of women and non-binary genders vs. allosexual (those who experience sexual attraction to others) • 74% report romantic attraction, 26% aromantic • Diverse romantic orientations: only 36% heteromantic

dating: publicly expressed practice undertaken by romantically interested partners for the purpose of getting to know one another better -by race and sexual orientation -don't differ much -smaller dating pool for LGBT+ -Expectation: Lowered dating among Asian teens and transgender teens -Higher prevalence of online dating: -women and LGB more likely to be harassed online -particularly high along LGB individuals

dating scripts: stereotyped sequences of events and behaviors that occur during dates -some cultural scripts proscribed by parents -most scripts haven't changed over past 20 years

similar scripts to heterosexual couples -but more freedom to write their own scripts

women's prescriptions -courted for fleeing qualities: youth, beauty, sexual modesty -passive emotional responders

active initiators -paternalistic chivalry; expectation that men should be both protective and polite in romantic contexts

For men: conflict between cultural expectations of masculinity and desire to express love toward partners

love emphasized as defining features of women's life that conflicts with women's autonomy -potentially mixed motives of benevolent protectiveness -may be loving -may be based on sexism -may be manipulative/controlling

Hookups: causal uncommitted sexual encounters -nearly 50% of college aged adults no significant gender diffs. -hookups for LGBT+ induvial have NOT been systematically investigated -gay men more likely to have engaged in hookups and more partners than heterosexual men

stigmatizes females for the same sexual behavior that boost male status -men perceive sleeves as gaining status while women feel they lose status -women report more regret

potential backlash against highly sexually active lesbian women rated by heterosexual Ps -but more leeway in defining sexual norms

procedure -N=144 -a moderately attractive member of another sex went up to a make or female student on campus and asked

would you go out with me tonight's ?

updated studies -Austrian magazine (N=100) indicated a 6.1% acceptance rate for women -2 more recent lab vignette study: overestimate of compliance by males underestimate by females why? contextual factors -social norm: fear of social sanctions because of sexual double standard -interpersonal dynamics: perceived sexual capabilities of proposers

method -952 Ps in two studies• Examined lesbian and gay people's acceptance of casual sex Results: • Both lesbian and gay men accepted their most recent casual sex offer more than half the time • Gay men more likely to accept casual offers vs. lesbian women • No gender difference in acceptance of propositions from bisexual people

Study 1: • Cultural beliefs about which partner in a heterosexual relationship—the manor the woman—is more likely to say "I love you" first • Study 2: • Men and women who had a past romantic relationship were asked to recall who said "I love you" first • Study 3: • Both partners in heterosexual couples were asked to report on their own current relationship

Women: • More likely to report physical symptoms of being in love • Rate themselves higher on emotional investment across cultures • Men:• Hold more traditional romantic beliefs (e.g. love conquers all, "the one," one's partner is perfect, and love at first sight) • However, overall more similarities than differences

LG couples more similar to their partner in relationship intimacy • Similarity, intimacy, positive communication, etc. all predict relationship satisfaction • Rates of falling in love similar between transgender and cisgender people • Additional stressors: • Stress from minority status, internalized homophobia

Method: • Internet-based study of 1,229 transgender people in the US • Results:• Strongly influence of heteronormative expectations• Less rigid gender beliefs are associated with lower levels of internalized transphobia, which, in turn, are associated with higher levels of self-esteem • Double-bind:• Conforming to gender & sexual norms leads to validation by mainstream US society, BUT • Could possibly entail diminished psychological well-being

-on average, heterosexual or same sex married people in higher quality marriages have better physical health and lower mortality than unmarried people or people in lower quality marriages -men have more positive health benefits from marriage -unhappy marriages worse for women -higher risk of depression -alcoholism -poorer immune functioning -stroke or cardiovascular disease

-no sex difference in frequency or intensity of jealousy men: more jealousy to partner's sexual than emotional infidelity -• Rooted in paternity uncertainty, jealousy helps to guard female mate from having sex with other men and reducing the chance raising offspring that don't carry his genes women more jealousy to emotional than sexual infidelity -more

heterosexuals, lesbians and gay men all more distress by sexual vs emotional infidelity but lesbians & gay men less so -men relatively distress by emotional infidelity

Across cultures: sex and physical intimacy, money, divisions of labor, and parenting (Dillon et al., 2015

Emotions and interaction patterns that couple members express during conflicts

method: newlywed couples come to lab conflict convo for 15 min -list disagreements in their relationship

marital satisfaction not a stronger predictor but level of physical arousal during conflict -Husbands with rapid escalation of negative emotion and more rapid decline of positive emotion

Fewer negative emotions, more positive emotions (affection, humor, joy/excitement) when in conflict compared with the heterosexual couples

Demand-Withdrawal:• One partner makes a demanding or critical remark • The other responds by withdrawing, either emotionally or physically(stonewalling)• No differences in demand/withdrawal pattern among heterosexual, gay, and lesbian couples • Predicts divorce when wife demands and husband withdraws • How couples fight is important to relationship functioning

%40 of first time marriage in Western Countries -2 crtical high risk times -first 7 years -midlife when couples have teens Rise in gray divorce later in life -less stigma -women finical independence -human longevity

across cultures women report relationships problems more often and initiate divorce more often -most common reasons: failure to meet partner's relationship expectations, lack of shared interests, work/life balance gender issues in divorce -inequalities in household tasks and childcare -stalking & domestic violence -infidelity

women finically tend to suffer more than men men psychologically may fare worse larger dip in happiness and higher mortality rates -loss of social and emotional support

western cultures tend to value egalitarian relationships -especially true among same sex and particularly lesbians couples

predicts higher satisfaction for both partners -couples who share domestic labor more equally report the highest relationship satisfaction and this holds for both heterosexual and same sex couples

for couples, feelings of love correlated with affectionate behaviors -among heterosexual couples -for wives: greater love=less criticizing for husbands: greater love=sex more frequently engage in couple leisure, larger % of housework -among gay and lesbian couples -tend to share more leisure activities

exam 2 gender

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