7.49 Same data set, different answers, and p-hacking: Brian Nosek and other researchers at the Center for Open Science gave the exact same set of data on football players (soccer players in the United States and Canada) to 29 different teams of researchers (Silberzahn et al., 2018). The researchers were all asked whether referees are more likely to give red cards—the harshest penalty for a rule violation—to dark-skinned players. The data set included many variables related to the players, including height, weight, number of games played, position, country of the league, and an ordinal measure of skin color. Of the 29 research teams, 25 came to the conclusion that darkskinned players were statistically significantly more likely to receive red cards than lighter-skinned players. However, their assessment results varied widely, from “slightly more likely” to “three times as likely.” Four of the research teams concluded that dark-skinned players were not statistically significantly more likely to receive red cards. Use the concept of p-hacking to describe potential reasons that different teams of researchers may have reached different conclusions using this exact same football data set.