Brooks (1974, p,46) defined corruption as "the intentional misperformance or neglect of a recognised duty, or unwarranted exercise of power, with the motive of gaining some advantage more or less directly."

Senturia (1931) sees it as the misuse or abuse of public power for private gains.

Alatas (1990) characterises corruption as the abuse of trust for the sake of private benefits.

Petty Corruption: This involves relatively minor amounts of money or gifts changing hands.

One of the parties could be a relatively minor official in an organization where the bribery is taking place.

A key characteristic of petty corruption is that it takes place many times. (High frequency). Included in this type are bribes to traffic police.

Grand Corruption: Corruption involving substantial amounts of money engaged in by businessmen and government officials of senior rank and the figures involved are significant.

Kickbacks to government officials for public works contracts fall under this category.

Looting (Lootocracy): This is the type of corruption that involves the illegal transfer of money or goods from one person (or destination) to another. It usually involves scams/scandals that are so huge that when they have been successfully concluded, they have macroeconomic implications fairly quickly such as banks collapsing, inflation rising and declining exchange rate.

Systemic/Routine Corruption: This type of corruption occurs where bribery is regularly and frequently experienced.

It takes place where wrongdoing has become the norm and common where offices that have regulatory services such as licenses, permits, immigration are issued.

Political / Bureaucratic Corruption: This type involves violation of elections laws, campaign finance regulations and conflicts of interest rules for parliamentarians.

Also found where power is highly centralized in a patronage-based political system and friends are rewarded. Funding comes from forced or voluntary business contributions or diverting government revenue or donor aid

Autogenic:

Autogenic corruption is self-generating and typically involves only the perpetrator.

A good example would be what happens in case of insider trading.

A person learns of some vital information that may influence stocks in a company and either quickly buys or gets rid of large amounts of stocks before the consequences arising from this information come to pass.

Extortive:

Extortive corruption is the behaviour of a person demanding personal compensation in exchange for services.

Investive:

Investive corruption entails the offer of goods or services without a direct link to any particular favour at the present, but in anticipation of future situations when the favour may be required.

Nepotistic:

Nepotistic corruption refers to the preferential treatment of, or unjustified appointment of friends or relations to public office, in violation of the accepted guidelines.

Supportive

The supportive type usually does not involve money or immediate gains, but involves actions taken to protect or strengthen the existing corruption.

Transactive: Transactive corruption refers to situations where the two parties are mutual and willing participants in the corrupt practice to the advantage of both parties.

Defensive:

Defensive corruption involves situations where a person needing a critical service is compelled to bribe in order to prevent unpleasant consequences inflicted on his interests.

EFFECT OF CORRUPTION ON NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 1. Productivity: Corruption leads to low productivity which is a potential source of poverty.

It is a disincentive to productive work if one can benefits without much work

2. Prevents growth:

Corruption constrains investment and retards growth.

Investors are asked for bribes before setting up enterprises and this becomes a tax to them and discourages investment.

3. Poor quality infrastructure: Corruption leads to low quality social infrastructure.

This affects movement of goods and services leading to shortages

4. Disincentive to savings: Where banks collapse due to non-performing loans and people lose confidence in banks and hoard their money making it unavailable for investors to borrow for productive use

CAUSES OF CORRUPTION Scarcity of employment opportunities Inefficient regulatory regime Excessive bureaucratic structures/bottlenecks Greed and unnecessary materialism Politicization of the bureaucracy Weak investigative institutions Lack of sanctions for perpetrators Parochialism Kinship, tradition, gift-giving Patron-client network

HOW TO DEAL WITH CORRUPTION Socialization Agencies Family Peer Group Schools The mass media Establish anti-corruption institutions, CHRAJ, EOCO, Special Prosecutor, Auditor-General Public education - e.g. Vice-President's campaign against indiscipline Churches/religious groups Political Parties Stiffer punishment/sanctions Prosecution/Public Display of officers etc.

We conclude this session with the following remarks:

Corruption is undoubtedly one of Africas greatest societal problems

The need to revisit our indigenous cultural traditions and adopt aspects that are compatible with Africa's needs, goals and circumstances in dealing with corruption.

Elevate the sanctioning regimes

summarize and review the passage