Cold chains are systems with a complex structure and, in general, call for a combination of air and road transport. Typically, when facing long travel distances, the leg from the vaccine manufacturer to a transit storage

facility means air transport. When responding to the Western Africa Ebola epidemic in $20142015,$ Doctors

without Borders transferred $8,294$ tons of material, most of it by air $($MSF$,2017).$ In later stages, road transport is usually in place. If there is significant travel distance between primary and intermediate vaccine stores,

that may also call for air transport. The available modes can range from trucks and cars to motorbikes, bikes

and animals.

Last$-$mile distribution is the most challenging part of the humanitarian supply chain. Disaster or flooding may

have destroyed roads. The point of delivery may be in an area very difficult to get to$.$ There may be significant

security concerns. These obstacles become even more challenging when handling delicate cargo such as

vaccines, especially when the receiving country$$s storage and transit equipment are older $($UNICEF$,2019).$

Logistics planners like Sara work within transport structures. For instance, Sudan$$s Ministry of Health can operate transportation using a combination of public$$private partnerships or outsourced service providers. While

this scenario does not apply to Sara, it is worthwhile to know the advantages and disadvantages of various

options $($WHO$,2017$a$).$ For example:

$$ Ministry of Health$-$operated transport offers the possibility of vehicle sharing with other programs and

in$-$house maintenance service that can be linked to vaccine supply. The negative side of this option

is higher costs.

$$ The cost$-$effectiveness of domestic boat or air transport can be a positive aspect of a public$$private

transport system, which reduces ministry of health responsibilities. On the negative side, this system

has been associated with the risk of goods damage or loss and the inability of the private sector to

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provide transport needed.

$$ The outsourced transport service provider will have high maintenance standards for vehicles and

makes it possible to transfer vehicle operations and responsibilities to an experienced provider with

more diverse competencies than a Ministry of Health. The disadvantage of this option is whether an

experienced and reliable provider will be quickly available.

Transportation and third$-$party companies such as Kuehne $+$ Nagel, United Parcel Service or Deutsche Post

often handle goods through various levels of the supply chain. When the vaccines reach the country of destination, governmental agencies have to approve the shipment arrival and authorize entry of an international

humanitarian organization $($Dolinskaya et al$.,2018).$

$1.$ How will sara map out each leg of the jounery, specifying the mode of transport for each leg?