What is the effect of cultural commoditization and transformation on local traditions and customs? Give an example.
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What is the effect of cultural commoditization and transformation on local traditions and customs? Give an example. Check Chapter 4 in the textbook for information on cultural commoditization and transformation.
INTRODUCTION The results of numerous empirical studies show that many countries and destinations experience cultural changes due to tourism development. The larger the numbers of tourists the more significant are the changes. This chapter explains tourism impacts on native cultures and shows what happens when tourists step into hosts’ lives when each other’s value systems are different. 4.1 EROSION OF LOCAL CULTURES It is often argued that with an increase in international travel and excessive demand for tourism products many societies experience erosion of local cultures and traditional ways of life and customs, including indigenous cultures. In order to keep up with tourist demand for local arts, the non-traditional craftsmen are given tasks to create pseudo-native artifacts, called ‘‘original art.’’ The original art forms become replaced by unsophisticated mass produced forms, often sloppily and carelessly made. As a result, the quality of the traditional artistic designs and forms deteriorates and their artistic and symbolic values and meanings disappear. The traditional art forms become substituted for meaningless pseudo-traditional arts promoted for the purpose of sale. 4.2 CULTURAL COMMODITIZATION AND TRANSFORMATION Traditional culture is being packaged and treated as commodity for sale over which tourists and entrepreneurs from the tourist culture, rather than locals, have rights. Superficial non-authentic art forms are produced to create quick impressions of what art once was and provide tourists with ephemeral and superficial experiences. As a result, the local culture is commercially exploited and the rights of locals to own cultural heritage are lost. Examples abound of mass produced and distributed ‘‘local’’ souvenirs or artifacts that can be found in various regions and countries, and that bear little resemblance to original and local artwork. 4.3 CULTURAL HOSTILITY Since tourism often destroys traditional ways of life and local economies, creates dependency and low-skilled unsecured jobs, and harms indigenous peoples, local hosts develop hostility to tourists. Cultural hostility is a form of cultural rejection or denial, often associated with anger and aggression. It refers to refusing to accept others’ views of the world and forcing others and the world to fit their views regardless of the cost. The larger the number of tourists visiting the destination, the greater the hosts’ hostility towards tourists. If hosts are not involved in setting the guidelines for tourism development, they may resent tourists and tourism development. 4.4 CULTURAL ARROGANCE Confronted with an influx of mass tourists, host populations often stage cultural experiences in order to compensate tourists for the lack of real experience. Staging cultural experiences is done by creating backstage areas, where locals continue their meaningful traditions away from the gaze of tourists, and front stage areas, where locals perform a limited range of activities for tourist audiences (MacCannell, 1973). Displaying superficial local traditions and customs to tourists is a form of cultural arrogance. However, this is done to protect and insulate local culture from the impact of mass tourism. Staging cultural experiences diverts tourists from authentic local culture, relieves pressure upon it and thus helps its preservation. Designing international hotels in Western styles and showing little respect and appreciation for the local traditions is another example of cultural arrogance. In orderto avoid being called culturally arrogant, some hotels incorporate local features in hotel interiors, exhibit work of the indigenous painters or sculptures, and display symbols of local lifestyle, such as crafts and dress. 4.5 AUTHENTICITY OF TOURISM EXPERIENCES In order to satisfy mass tourism, pseudo-artifacts are produced and commoditized creating standardized and inauthentic products. Some scholars argue that tourists like commoditized, inauthentic products, imitations, images, and so called ‘‘staged attractions’’ (Boorstin, 1961). However, it is debatable whether tourists are able to actually experience what is authentic in foreign cultures, as most of what they are offered is pseudo-experience. In order for tourists to experience an authentic foreign culture, they need to get away from the main streets, shopping centers, and attractions where only staged authenticity is present. False back stage areas are often set up to deceive tourists; they could be more inauthentic than staged front regions. Thus, commoditization and globalization destroy the authenticity of tourist experiences (MacCannell, 1989). However, some believe that what is promoted to tourists is assumed to be authentic (Culler, 1981) and what is inauthentic may become authentic over time (Graburn, 1976). For example, tourism products that are initially regarded as inauthentic (e.g., Disney World) eventually get incorporated into local culture and perceived as authentic (Cohen, 1988). Tourists are often willing to perceive tourism products as being authentic because they are ‘‘symbols’’ of authenticity, not because they are originals or represent reality (Culler, 1981). Tourists like to take home from Mexico sombreros with Mexican designs on them as authentic evidence of their destinations. Although these objects are made for the mass market and promote inauthenticity (Errington, 1998) traditional techniques may remain unchanged (Cohen, 1993). Many tourists are not concerned with authenticity and the origins of attractions as long as they enjoy them and the products transformed by the commoditization remain authentic in the tourists’ eyes. Also, many tourists accept superficiality of tourism products as long as it helps to protect the original culture (Cohen, 1995). Tourists understand that commoditization of cultural products may change or add new meanings to them (Cohen, 1988; Grunewald, 2002). Most tourists accept commercialized objects as authentic as long as they are convinced that these objects have traditional designs and have been made by members of an ethnic group (Cohen, 1988)4.6 RENAISSANCE OF TRADITIONAL ART FORMS In some cases tourism enables a rejuvenation of particular forms of art and craft. The exposure to other ethnic groups can often result in the adaption of their art traditions, forms, and designs (e.g., pottery, jewelry). By borrowing from one culture, modifyingand refining the original local art, new forms of traditional art can develop. For example, refining highly demanded Indian and Aboriginal arts and crafts allowed for developing new ideas and creating new designs. Thus, in the process of commoditization (mass) tourism may help to maintain and revive original traditions, and art designs and forms (Cohen, 1988). 4.7 MARKETING OF CULTURE AND VIOLATION OF RIGHTS TO OWN CULTURAL HERITAGE By treating traditional culture as a commodity for sale and making it commercially exploited, culture is turned to paid performance. Traditional ceremonies and festivals are pre-arranged and treated as daily entertainment rituals for sale (e.g., hula girls greet tourists at Honolulu airport; Maori perform daily dances in Rotorua, New Zealand). As a result, the tourists see the visited country through superficial experiences that are selective, pre-arranged, and distorted from reality. The commercialization of culture proves that the traditional culture can be treated as a commodity over which locals lose their rights. The discussed above cultural practices are usually responsible for culture change. 4.8 CULTURE CHANGE Culture change occurs as a result of (1) evolutionary changes occurring within a society, (2) changes in the way people live, and (3) contact between societies and groups from different cultures (e.g., hosts and visitors). All cultures are changing in response to the changes in social environment, institutions, technologies, politics, and ideologies. One of the major reasons for culture change is frequent contact between societies. Cultural elements such as values, ideas, or scientific developments are spread all over the world by travelers, immigrants, business people, guest workers, diplomats, and students. Culture is also carried by film and literature. The spread of these cultural elements among societies is a two-way process. Visitors bring their ideas to the host country, and hosts expose visitors to their values and perspectives. As a result of cultural contact between their members, both cultures (host culture and visitor culture) influence each, and affluent society has more influence on the non-industrialized and developing society. For example, the Western industrialized nations have more influence on Third World countries than the Third World countries have on developed Western nations. Those with more power significantly influence the culture of those with less power. Tourism significantly influences the changes induced through contact between societies with different cultures. Many studies show that the interaction between locals and tourists creates significant changes in cultural (as well as social, economic, and political) value systems. Tourism is a medium for cultural transformation. In particular, tourism can initiate irreversible changes within the cultures of host communities (Robinson, 1998). Tourists are viewed as agents of cultural changes (Pearce, 1995).Cultural diffusion refers to the spread of cultural elements such as ideas, styles, food, religions, technologies, etc., between individuals and groups within a single culture or from one culture to another. For example, the new fashion items and dressing styles, such as blue jeans, Nike shoes, or Movado wristwatches; technology products, such as the Apple ipod or Dell personal computers; foods, such as pizza, spaghetti, or sushi; ideals, such as democracy or human rights, have spread rapidly around the world in the last several years. The spread of cultural elements across different cultures is called inter-cultural diffusion, and it usually happens through migrants and trans-cultural visitors such as tourists, diplomats, soldiers, business people, scientists, actors, transcultural marriages and media (letters, books), all of which carry their culture with them. The effect of culture diffusion is changing local cultural features (dressing, styles, food) and traditions; creating new products, services, and jobs; changing beliefs and ideas and improving the quality of life. In tourism, culture diffusion refers either to the tourist or the host populations who spread and adapt cultural elements of one another. The cultural elements that are spread through tourism can be gastronomy, dress, language, traditions, art and music, handicrafts, architecture, religion, and leisure activities. Various theories explain the origins of culture diffusion. According to the heliocentric diffusionism theory, all cultures originate from one culture. Culture circles diffusionism (Kulturkreise) theory teaches that cultures originate from a small number of cultures. Evolutionary diffusionism theory assumes that societies and their cultures are influenced by other societies and their cultures, and that all humans are equally able to create new ideas and innovate. Biblical diffusionism theory argues that the universe and all cultures started with Adam and Eve. The cultural evolutionary diffusionism theory states that new cultural items appear simultaneously and independently in several different places when certain items are diffused to the respective communities. For example, the inventions of the portable computer and cell phone spread simultaneously all over the world. Although the concept of cultural diffusion is often used to explain similarities among cultures, it has been criticized for implying that various cultures would not be capable of development if it were not for cultural diffusion. Also, diffusion is difficult to prove; it can be proved only when it leaves some tangible traces, such as archeological traces. In addition, the theories of cultural diffusion fail to explain why some cultural elements have not been diffused between countries and continents. 4.10 CULTURAL BORROWING Cultural borrowing occurs when two cultures come into contact and borrow each other’s traditions, customs or values. Borrowing is not symmetrical; it depends on the nature and the duration of the contact, its purpose, context, characteristics of the interacting individuals, and the differences between individuals and theirsocieties. Those who are from less wealthy and influential societies borrow from those who are from wealthier and influential societies. For example, hosts from developing countries are more likely to borrow from tourists who are from developed countries. Host destinations that support tourism development borrow cultural elements from tourists’ cultures in order to follow the standards of their culture. As a result of cultural borrowing in developing countries, the original culture of the host societies becomes weaker (they develop a Western style of society) and the culture of the tourist societies becomes stronger. The effects of cultural borrowing may be positive and negative. Cultural borrowing may lead to learning elements from other cultures, better understanding of other people and to some extent influencing people’s patterns of life. Sometimes both cultures become similar. When the host culture lags technologically behind, cultural borrowing can revitalize its cultural features (art, culture, etc.) (Pearce, 1995). However, cultural borrowing may also lead to cultural collision: natives, for example, may replace their traditional costumes with cheap imitations of the city tourist’s dress (tshirts and jeans), while the tourists may adorn themselves with expensive imitations of native costumes (Gee, Makens, & Choy, 1997). 4.11 CULTURAL DRIFT Cultural drift refers to a temporary and random cultural change. A good example of cultural drift is a temporary change in language; over time, pronunciation, vocabulary, spelling and even grammar can change. Although some of these changes occur as a result of changes in education and technology, most of them are caused by the changes brought by different cultures, especially a continuous interaction between societies. In tourism these changes are brought by contact between tourists and locals. Since their contact is often seasonal and brief, the changes may be temporal. The temporary contact between tourists and hosts can result in visible changes in their behavior (phenotypic behavior). For example, the host can develop an attitude of servitude toward tourists. Since tourists visit the host’s culture for the purpose of leisure, and hosts are at work, both strive to achieve different goals: tourists strive for personal satisfaction and hosts for financial gains. This often results in exploiting each other and the host environment. Cultural drift assumes that the hosts’ and tourists’ behavior is changed temporarily for the duration of the tourist stay. The hosts and tourists may return to their original values and lifestyle when tourists leave. However, the changes in the host behavior may also be permanent. As the number of visitors to a destination increases and the contact between hosts and guests is more continuous, hosts may need to adjust to the needs of the tourists on a more permanent basis. Their values, norms, and standards are permanently changed and passed from one generation to the next. These reflect the changes to hosts’ genotypic behavior. The larger the contrast between the host culture and the tourist culture, the more significant the changes.Acculturation ‘‘results when groups of individuals from different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, which causes changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups (Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits, 1936). During the acculturation process, cultural elements of each group or individual are exchanged. As a result of this exchange, the original cultural patterns of either or both groups may be changed, but the groups remain culturally distinct (Kottak, 2007). Those who come to a new environment learn the behaviors, attitudes, and values of a culture that is different from their culture of origin (Lee, 1988). During the acculturation process, both changes of phenotypic and genotypic behaviors occur. The process of acculturation is not balanced. Acculturation occurs when contact takes place between a stronger culture and a weaker one. It is more likely to occur between the developed and the developing world. For example, tourists from powerful, developed countries influence locals from poorer, developing countries. Historically, acculturation was believed to be a one-way process whereby the individual coming to a new culture learned its values and norms. Acculturation can affect one or both groups. However, it influences one group more than the other (Berry & Sam, 1997). For example, although both the newcomer culture and the host culture undergo changes, the impact of the host culture on the newcomer culture is relatively stronger compared to the influence of the newcomer culture on the host culture (Kim, 1985). The newcomers need to adapt more to the host culture than the hosts need to adapt to the newcomer culture (Ogden, Ogden, & Schau, 2004). Traditionally, it was believed that in order to adapt to a culturally different environment individuals had to lose their cultural characteristic and gain characteristics of other cultural groups. Today it is believed that individuals may maintain their culture of origin while gaining characteristics of other cultural groups (Berry, 2003). Individuals themselves determine the amount of cultural characteristics and contact needed with the dominant culture to successfully adapt. Individuals who are not able to make this decision often experience stress resulting in reduced mental health (Berry, 2003; Burnham, Hough, Karno, Escobar, & Telles, 1987). Acculturation occurs at both individual and group levels. On the individual level, newcomers learn new values and develop new perceptions, attitudes, and personality (Berry, 1980). On the group level, acculturation occurs through socialization, social interaction, and mobility (Olmedo, 1979). Individual acculturation is called transculturation and occurs on a smaller scale and has less visible impact. It mostly occurs to long-stay visitors and first-generation immigrants, for whom the process is very difficult, due to the lack of precedents in the family. The degree of acculturation varies, depending on the individual’s interests and the motivation. An example of individual acculturation is learning regional vocabulary by a traveler who spent some time in a foreign country. The group acculturation occurs on a larger scale and is more visible. The group acculturation occurs due to the inflow of new technology, modernization, and advancement. For example, due to continuous contact, cultures exchanged foods, recipes, music, clothing, and technologies. However, the group acculturation mayhave damaging impact on the indigenous culture, leading to total assimilation of the indigenous people with the dominant culture. For example, many Native Americans of the United States, Taiwanese aborigines, and Australian aborigines have nearly lost their traditional culture when it was replaced by the dominant new culture. Acculturation is measured by the extent to which a person has adapted to a new culture and changed his or her own behavior as a result of the contact with a new culture. In the early 1900s many of the European migrants successfully assimilated and adapted American culture. However, the new immigrants to the United States (e.g., Hispanics) do not desire to be fully assimilated. Many of them want to maintain their own cultural identities. One of the most important indicators of acculturation is the extent to which newcomers (1) speak their native language versus host language, (2) become aware of the cultural heritage, identity, and social behavior of a new culture versus their culture, and (3) are culturally affiliated with a new culture and do not feel discrimination. Acculturation can be voluntary or forced. Acculturation is voluntary when the individuals voluntarily come to a new culture and learn its values and beliefs. Acculturation is forced when the individuals are forced to come to a new culture for political or economic reasons. Voluntary acculturation is quicker and easier because individuals are motivated to learn the host language, become familiar with the preferences and lifestyle of a new culture, and become affiliated with a new culture. Forced acculturation is difficult and it takes longer time. The process of acculturation is often referred to as the ‘‘Macdonaldization’’ of global cultures (Mason, 2003). Due to globalization, access to new technology and advancements in communication customers, regardless of their location, learn about new products and share common tastes and preferences on a worldwide scale. Homogenized products and global standards that imitate and assimilate patterns of social behavior, language, dress, and, cuisine are spread around the world (Ritzer & Liska, 1997). This standardization of products around the world blurs cultural lines (Jafari, 1996) that results in cultural homogeneity and standardization of tourism destinations. 4.13 CULTURAL ADAPTATION Cultural adaptation refers to adaptation of elements of other culture. Hosts need to adapt some elements of tourist culture in order to meet tourists’ needs. Host communities are usually pro-active and adapt to different categories of tourists despite stereotypes (Sofield, 2000). The process of adaptation depends on the duration of the tourist’s visit, duration and intensity of interaction between tourists and hosts, the strength of their cultural affiliations, and capacity to withstand the influences of each other. The process of hosts’ adaptation to tourists’ needs often leads to commoditization and commercialization of local culture. There are various adaptation models developed. For example, according to Doxey (1976), the resident population (hosts) changes their behavior and attitudes to tourists over time. When tourists first visit the destination, hosts greet them with euphoria andthen over time as the numbers of tourists and their impacts (positive and negative) grow, hosts’ attitudes move through stages of apathy and annoyance to a level of aggression towards the visitors (Mason, 2003). 4.14 CULTURAL ADJUSTMENT Cultural adaptation is often referred to as cultural adjustment. Trivonovich identified four different stages which every visitor may have to go through when adjusting to a new and different culture: (1) honeymoon stage, (2) hostility stage, (3) integration/ acceptance stage, and (4) home stage (http://www.cgu.edu/pages/945.asp). In the honeymoon stage visitors are excited and fascinated with everything new. They are happy, interested in a new life and other people, and willing to please and cooperate. In the hostility stage the visitors become anxious, judgmental, fearful, and often depressed. They are frustrated about new rules of life and customs. They are easily upset by small and unimportant things, are not able to sleep and eat, and suffer from headaches, indigestion, and other illnesses. They blame the new environment for own discomfort and unhappiness and reject it. Visitors become hostile to all that is new and foreign; they lose motivation and often withdraw. In the integration stage visitors begin to feel comfortable and relaxed in the new environment. They smile and joke, and are not concerned with minor misunderstandings which previously caused hostility. They make friends and start seeking more information about the new environment. In the home stage, visitors feel at home and treat their new culture as their native culture. They have successfully adjusted to the customs and standards of the new environment and are able to live successfully in both cultures (http://www.cgu.edu/pages/945.asp). Sharp (1992) identified similar stages of adjustment, such as (1) initial enthusiasm and excitement about visiting a new destination, (2) withdrawal and loneliness due to difficulties caused by cultural problems, (3) re-emergence and adjustment, and (4) achievement and enthusiasm after adapting to a new culture. There are several techniques that can be used to ease cultural adjustment. These include (1) being humble and having a genuine desire to meet and talk with local people, (2) expecting different things when traveling, (3) being open minded and not taking things seriously, (4) not letting others get on one’s nerves, (5) enjoying the experiences and being a good ambassador for one’s country, (6) learning about the new country to be visited, (7) not judging others by the people one has trouble with, (8) listening and observing, (9) understanding that other people may have different thought patterns, (10) being aware of what may be offensive to other people, and (11) reflecting on new experiences (http://www.cie.uci.edu/world/shock.html). 4.15 CULTURE ASSIMILATION There is some ambiguity between the concept of acculturation and cultural assimilation. Consequently both terms are often used interchangeably. However, there is a difference between these two concepts. Acculturation refers to cultural borrowingwhen some elements of the other culture are added without abandoning the native culture (individuals gain characteristics of another cultural group while maintaining their original culture, causing changes in the original cultural patterns. When contact between tourists and hosts is temporary, hosts get back to their traditional values and lifestyles after tourists leave. If the contact is very short, a host society can experience cultural drift. On the other hand, assimilation occurs when a person fully adapts mainstream values of a new culture and gives up his/her cultural heritage (Berry, 1980; Padilla, 1980). Assimilation is about the replacement of one set of cultural traits by another one. It is a very intense process of integration and absorption of members of a cultural group (typically immigrants) or minority groups into another one. During this process many cultural characteristics of those who try to assimilate can be lost. The differences between acculturation and assimilation can be presented on an acculturation–assimilation continuum. At one end of the continuum is the unacculturated extreme, where the individual’s cultural heritage strongly influences his/her behavior. At the other end is the acculturated extreme, where the individual is fully assimilated to the host culture and has fully adapted the values and attitudes of the host population (Hair & Anderson, 1972). At this end, assimilation rather than acculturation occurs (see Figure 4.1).Similarly to acculturation, assimilation can be voluntary (in the case with long-term visitors and immigrants) or forced upon an individual or group. When individuals or national groups are forced to assimilate for political or economic reasons they may strongly resist it. Sometimes governments put extreme pressure and even use force to assimilate the minority groups to a dominant culture. In this process some minority cultures can be exterminated and even physically eliminated because they usually do not have political power and are not in a formal position to impose elements of their culture on the dominant culture. Different individuals assimilate in a different way. Some can assimilate quickly (e.g., young and motivated), while others cannot assimilate at all (e.g., elderly). Children born in host countries to long-term visitors, such as guest workers, diplomats, soldiers, or immigrant parents, do not have trouble assimilating. These children easily associate with the host culture on a regular basis and treat the culture into which they have been born as their native culture. However, new long-term visitors and immigrants and their children have to adapt first before they assimilate to the host societies; they retain or modify elements of their native culture depending on how the host culture meets their needs.Individuals try to assimilate with the new environment by learning the language of the host country, making new friends, finding a job, or going to school. Host societies also try to adapt to newcomers by accepting them as their own, providing them with language classes, helping to find schools and jobs, and giving them preferential treatment over themselves. The effects of assimilation may be positive and negative. Assimilation may lead to learning, understanding, and accepting a new culture and its people. However, it may also lead to the minimization of the distinctive features of the native cultures and even their total disappearance. 4.16 ENCULTURATION Enculturation refers to the learning of what is contained in culture. It is the process of learning the accepted norms and values of the culture or society in which the individual lives, what is and is not permissible within that society’s framework, and the individual role within society. Enculturation also involves learning the language and ways of life of other people and their countries. Enculturation is about learning from other people how to behave. Thus, enculturation results in behavioral similarities and differences across societies. Much of learning occurs through communication (speech, words, and gestures), observation of others and emulating their behavior (e.g., using different slang, expressions, and dress), education, and socialization (through social events and behaviors that prevail in a particular culture). Thus, enculturation also refers to socialization (Segall, Dasen, Berry, & Poortinga, 1990). Parents play a very important role in a child’s learning a culture. Enculturation is a life-long process. It can be conscious or unconscious. Individuals are usually unaware of how much they learn. People who are most thoroughly enculturated are the least aware of their culture’s role in influencing them (Segall, Dasen, Berry, & Poortinga, 1990). Enculturation is sometimes referred to as acculturation, a word which originally referred only to exchanges of cultural features with foreign cultures. 4.17 DEMONSTRATION EFFECT Demonstration effect is the effect on the behavior of individuals caused by observation of the actions of others and their consequences (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonstration_effect). The example of demonstration effect includes individuals or countries that adapt cultural elements and policies used by those who have been successful in adapting them. The purpose of demonstration effect is to emulate the success of others. In tourism, demonstration effect refers to local residents adapting the styles and manners of visiting tourists. Locals notice the superior material possessions of the visitors and wish to have the same. One of the positive effects of demonstration effectis that it encourages residents to better work and productivity. Particularly, in developing countries hosts can be motivated to perform better because they can see in tourists the standard of living they want to follow. However, the expensive cameras and watches carried by tourists can not only be the objects of admiration and motivation to work harder, but also a source of anger and even threat. Demonstration effect can be disruptive; locals can become resentful of visitors because they are unable to obtain the goods and lifestyle demonstrated by them. The exposure of the host society to tourists’ goods or ways of living can create unhappiness of hosts with what they previously regarded as acceptable. Demonstration effect can often generate jealousy, resentment, and even hatred of tourists in the developing host countries, especially, when locals see they cannot be as wealthy as tourists and have the same standard of living. Demonstrating the Western way of living, either through travel and tourism or media, to host countries that have not reached the same level of development and wealth, may be a sign of egoism on behalf of tourists. However, international travelers from developed countries are not always aware of the socio-economic situation of the host countries in which they travel and thus do not always understand the effects of their behavior on the local population. Consequently, tourists are not always to be blamed for their behavior. Demonstration effect is most often brought by commercial and media activities which are to be blamed. Young people are particularly susceptible to demonstration effect. Demonstration effect encourages young people to leave their families and home land, especially rural areas, and move to urban areas or even overseas in search of the better ‘‘demonstrated’’ lifestyle. Demonstration effect may be responsible for social divisions between the young and old members of a society, and conflicts rather than learning and cooperation (Mason, 2003). 4.18 CULTURAL CONFLICT Cultural conflicts are created by cultural contacts. Conflicts arise because those in contact (individuals or groups) are from different cultures. Culture is a major factor in culture conflict. In particular cultural differences that cause misunderstanding and value clashes, cause culture conflicts. People are cultural beings, and culture is part of their identity, the way they perceive and act in the world and the way they interact. Culture affects their relationships, how they develop meanings, create identities, understand their roles and responsibilities, and argue and negotiate. Culture is an important component in human conflicts. Human conflicts are cultural conflicts. In all human conflicts tensions develop due to inaccurate communication or stressed relationships, which are due to differences in culture. Even conflict resolutions are influenced by culture. For example, the Kosovo conflict or Israeli–Palestinian or Indian–Pakistani conflicts are not about territory and sovereignty issues; they are also about making different meanings, perceiving the world, and acknowledging and legitimizing own cultural identities and ways of living.Societies as well as individuals who share cultural similarities understand each other, develop mutual relationships, and group themselves around their values. Those who do not share cultural values and preferences have difficulties with understanding each other and are not successful in developing relationships; thus they are increasingly in conflict with each other. The question is whether global tourism will be characterized by increasing cultural understanding or conflicts? What is the likelihood of cultural understanding and conflicts between people? Whether international travel traffic has increased its impact on human contact and relationships is often debatable. It is generally assumed that international tourism reduces the probability of cultural conflict and leads to cultural understanding and peace. However, there is not much evidence to confirm this assumption. In fact, to the contrary, there is much evidence that increasing contact between people from different cultures may be a highly divisive force for international tourism (see Chapter 8). One may even say that it is unlikely that increasing contact between people from different cultures will ease international tensions or promote greater international understanding and good relations among countries. Even economic benefits that tourism brings cannot foster understanding and peace among nations. Increased communication, trade, and travel multiply interactions among cultures, and increasingly encourage people to pay attention to their cultural uniqueness and identity. For example, two Europeans, one German and the other French, interacting with each other, identify each other as German and French. However, when interacting with two Arabs, one Saudi and the other Egyptian, they define themselves as Europeans and Arabs. Consequently, in an increasingly globalized world there will be a very strong focus on cultural, ethnic and even civilizational identity. People will increasingly desire to emphasize their identities which may be a determining force for generating future cultural conflicts. Cultural conflicts are more dangerous than conflicts between social or economic classes. Vaclav Havel, a former president of the Czech Republic stated that ‘‘cultural conflicts are increasing and are more dangerous today than at any time in history’’ (Havel, 1994). Nations who share similar culture, values, social relations, customs and philosophical assumptions and have similar outlook on life usually support ethnic conflicts, tribal wars, and violence between groups from different cultures. Thus, it is expected that future conflicts between nations and individuals will be generated by cultural factors rather than by economics or ideology (Delors, 1993). In today’s increasingly multicultural world, global tourism will be characterized by increasing cultural conflicts (Huntington, 1996). Cultural differences will be undoing the world. The more the world will become globalized, the more pressure there will be on societies and individuals to become culturally unique and distinct. The existence and nature of the cultural conflicts will greatly depend upon understanding and accepting the cultural differences as differences rather than deficiencies. As a result, those who want to avoid conflicts and function more effectively in a new global world will require cultural competency (see Chapter 17)SUMMARY With an excessive demand for tourism products many societies experience erosion of local cultures. Traditional cultures are being commoditized and commercialized exploited over which locals lose rights. Although commoditization destroys authenticity of local culture it also helps its conservation and preservation. Culture change refers to changes in culture due to contact between culturally different groups. Cultural diffusion defines the spread of cultural elements from one culture to another. Various theories failed to explain why some cultural elements are not being diffused. Cultural borrowing occurs when two cultures borrow each other’s traditions, customs, or values. Although cultural borrowing may lead to learning other cultures, it may also generate cultural collision. Cultural drift refers to a temporary and random cultural change. The tourist–host contact can result in temporary and visible (phenotypic) or permanent (genotypic) changes in behavior. Acculturation refers to adding some elements of the other culture to one’s native culture and causing changes in one’s original cultural patterns. Acculturation is measured by the extent to which a person has adapted to a new culture. Cultural adaptation refers to adaptation of elements of another culture. Hosts need to adapt some elements of tourists’ culture to meet tourists’ needs. There are various stages of cultural adaptation or adjustment and techniques for easing cultural adjustment. Culture assimilation occurs when a person fully adapts mainstream values of a new culture and gives up his/her cultural heritage. The differences between acculturation and assimilation can be presented on an acculturation–assimilation continuum. Acculturation and assimilation can be voluntary or forced. Although assimilation may lead to learning a new culture it can also lead to a total disappearance of native cultures. Enculturation refers to the learning of what is contained in culture; it often results in behavioral similarities and differences across societies. Demonstration effect refers to local residents adapting the styles and manners of visiting tourists. Demonstration effect frequently creates jealousy and hatred of tourists in the developing host country. Culture conflicts are caused by misunderstanding and value clashes and are more dangerous than
INTRODUCTION The results of numerous empirical studies show that many countries and destinations experience cultural changes due to tourism development. The larger the numbers of tourists the more significant are the changes. This chapter explains tourism impacts on native cultures and shows what happens when tourists step into hosts’ lives when each other’s value systems are different. 4.1 EROSION OF LOCAL CULTURES It is often argued that with an increase in international travel and excessive demand for tourism products many societies experience erosion of local cultures and traditional ways of life and customs, including indigenous cultures. In order to keep up with tourist demand for local arts, the non-traditional craftsmen are given tasks to create pseudo-native artifacts, called ‘‘original art.’’ The original art forms become replaced by unsophisticated mass produced forms, often sloppily and carelessly made. As a result, the quality of the traditional artistic designs and forms deteriorates and their artistic and symbolic values and meanings disappear. The traditional art forms become substituted for meaningless pseudo-traditional arts promoted for the purpose of sale. 4.2 CULTURAL COMMODITIZATION AND TRANSFORMATION Traditional culture is being packaged and treated as commodity for sale over which tourists and entrepreneurs from the tourist culture, rather than locals, have rights. Superficial non-authentic art forms are produced to create quick impressions of what art once was and provide tourists with ephemeral and superficial experiences. As a result, the local culture is commercially exploited and the rights of locals to own cultural heritage are lost. Examples abound of mass produced and distributed ‘‘local’’ souvenirs or artifacts that can be found in various regions and countries, and that bear little resemblance to original and local artwork. 4.3 CULTURAL HOSTILITY Since tourism often destroys traditional ways of life and local economies, creates dependency and low-skilled unsecured jobs, and harms indigenous peoples, local hosts develop hostility to tourists. Cultural hostility is a form of cultural rejection or denial, often associated with anger and aggression. It refers to refusing to accept others’ views of the world and forcing others and the world to fit their views regardless of the cost. The larger the number of tourists visiting the destination, the greater the hosts’ hostility towards tourists. If hosts are not involved in setting the guidelines for tourism development, they may resent tourists and tourism development. 4.4 CULTURAL ARROGANCE Confronted with an influx of mass tourists, host populations often stage cultural experiences in order to compensate tourists for the lack of real experience. Staging cultural experiences is done by creating backstage areas, where locals continue their meaningful traditions away from the gaze of tourists, and front stage areas, where locals perform a limited range of activities for tourist audiences (MacCannell, 1973). Displaying superficial local traditions and customs to tourists is a form of cultural arrogance. However, this is done to protect and insulate local culture from the impact of mass tourism. Staging cultural experiences diverts tourists from authentic local culture, relieves pressure upon it and thus helps its preservation. Designing international hotels in Western styles and showing little respect and appreciation for the local traditions is another example of cultural arrogance. In orderto avoid being called culturally arrogant, some hotels incorporate local features in hotel interiors, exhibit work of the indigenous painters or sculptures, and display symbols of local lifestyle, such as crafts and dress. 4.5 AUTHENTICITY OF TOURISM EXPERIENCES In order to satisfy mass tourism, pseudo-artifacts are produced and commoditized creating standardized and inauthentic products. Some scholars argue that tourists like commoditized, inauthentic products, imitations, images, and so called ‘‘staged attractions’’ (Boorstin, 1961). However, it is debatable whether tourists are able to actually experience what is authentic in foreign cultures, as most of what they are offered is pseudo-experience. In order for tourists to experience an authentic foreign culture, they need to get away from the main streets, shopping centers, and attractions where only staged authenticity is present. False back stage areas are often set up to deceive tourists; they could be more inauthentic than staged front regions. Thus, commoditization and globalization destroy the authenticity of tourist experiences (MacCannell, 1989). However, some believe that what is promoted to tourists is assumed to be authentic (Culler, 1981) and what is inauthentic may become authentic over time (Graburn, 1976). For example, tourism products that are initially regarded as inauthentic (e.g., Disney World) eventually get incorporated into local culture and perceived as authentic (Cohen, 1988). Tourists are often willing to perceive tourism products as being authentic because they are ‘‘symbols’’ of authenticity, not because they are originals or represent reality (Culler, 1981). Tourists like to take home from Mexico sombreros with Mexican designs on them as authentic evidence of their destinations. Although these objects are made for the mass market and promote inauthenticity (Errington, 1998) traditional techniques may remain unchanged (Cohen, 1993). Many tourists are not concerned with authenticity and the origins of attractions as long as they enjoy them and the products transformed by the commoditization remain authentic in the tourists’ eyes. Also, many tourists accept superficiality of tourism products as long as it helps to protect the original culture (Cohen, 1995). Tourists understand that commoditization of cultural products may change or add new meanings to them (Cohen, 1988; Grunewald, 2002). Most tourists accept commercialized objects as authentic as long as they are convinced that these objects have traditional designs and have been made by members of an ethnic group (Cohen, 1988)4.6 RENAISSANCE OF TRADITIONAL ART FORMS In some cases tourism enables a rejuvenation of particular forms of art and craft. The exposure to other ethnic groups can often result in the adaption of their art traditions, forms, and designs (e.g., pottery, jewelry). By borrowing from one culture, modifyingand refining the original local art, new forms of traditional art can develop. For example, refining highly demanded Indian and Aboriginal arts and crafts allowed for developing new ideas and creating new designs. Thus, in the process of commoditization (mass) tourism may help to maintain and revive original traditions, and art designs and forms (Cohen, 1988). 4.7 MARKETING OF CULTURE AND VIOLATION OF RIGHTS TO OWN CULTURAL HERITAGE By treating traditional culture as a commodity for sale and making it commercially exploited, culture is turned to paid performance. Traditional ceremonies and festivals are pre-arranged and treated as daily entertainment rituals for sale (e.g., hula girls greet tourists at Honolulu airport; Maori perform daily dances in Rotorua, New Zealand). As a result, the tourists see the visited country through superficial experiences that are selective, pre-arranged, and distorted from reality. The commercialization of culture proves that the traditional culture can be treated as a commodity over which locals lose their rights. The discussed above cultural practices are usually responsible for culture change. 4.8 CULTURE CHANGE Culture change occurs as a result of (1) evolutionary changes occurring within a society, (2) changes in the way people live, and (3) contact between societies and groups from different cultures (e.g., hosts and visitors). All cultures are changing in response to the changes in social environment, institutions, technologies, politics, and ideologies. One of the major reasons for culture change is frequent contact between societies. Cultural elements such as values, ideas, or scientific developments are spread all over the world by travelers, immigrants, business people, guest workers, diplomats, and students. Culture is also carried by film and literature. The spread of these cultural elements among societies is a two-way process. Visitors bring their ideas to the host country, and hosts expose visitors to their values and perspectives. As a result of cultural contact between their members, both cultures (host culture and visitor culture) influence each, and affluent society has more influence on the non-industrialized and developing society. For example, the Western industrialized nations have more influence on Third World countries than the Third World countries have on developed Western nations. Those with more power significantly influence the culture of those with less power. Tourism significantly influences the changes induced through contact between societies with different cultures. Many studies show that the interaction between locals and tourists creates significant changes in cultural (as well as social, economic, and political) value systems. Tourism is a medium for cultural transformation. In particular, tourism can initiate irreversible changes within the cultures of host communities (Robinson, 1998). Tourists are viewed as agents of cultural changes (Pearce, 1995).Cultural diffusion refers to the spread of cultural elements such as ideas, styles, food, religions, technologies, etc., between individuals and groups within a single culture or from one culture to another. For example, the new fashion items and dressing styles, such as blue jeans, Nike shoes, or Movado wristwatches; technology products, such as the Apple ipod or Dell personal computers; foods, such as pizza, spaghetti, or sushi; ideals, such as democracy or human rights, have spread rapidly around the world in the last several years. The spread of cultural elements across different cultures is called inter-cultural diffusion, and it usually happens through migrants and trans-cultural visitors such as tourists, diplomats, soldiers, business people, scientists, actors, transcultural marriages and media (letters, books), all of which carry their culture with them. The effect of culture diffusion is changing local cultural features (dressing, styles, food) and traditions; creating new products, services, and jobs; changing beliefs and ideas and improving the quality of life. In tourism, culture diffusion refers either to the tourist or the host populations who spread and adapt cultural elements of one another. The cultural elements that are spread through tourism can be gastronomy, dress, language, traditions, art and music, handicrafts, architecture, religion, and leisure activities. Various theories explain the origins of culture diffusion. According to the heliocentric diffusionism theory, all cultures originate from one culture. Culture circles diffusionism (Kulturkreise) theory teaches that cultures originate from a small number of cultures. Evolutionary diffusionism theory assumes that societies and their cultures are influenced by other societies and their cultures, and that all humans are equally able to create new ideas and innovate. Biblical diffusionism theory argues that the universe and all cultures started with Adam and Eve. The cultural evolutionary diffusionism theory states that new cultural items appear simultaneously and independently in several different places when certain items are diffused to the respective communities. For example, the inventions of the portable computer and cell phone spread simultaneously all over the world. Although the concept of cultural diffusion is often used to explain similarities among cultures, it has been criticized for implying that various cultures would not be capable of development if it were not for cultural diffusion. Also, diffusion is difficult to prove; it can be proved only when it leaves some tangible traces, such as archeological traces. In addition, the theories of cultural diffusion fail to explain why some cultural elements have not been diffused between countries and continents. 4.10 CULTURAL BORROWING Cultural borrowing occurs when two cultures come into contact and borrow each other’s traditions, customs or values. Borrowing is not symmetrical; it depends on the nature and the duration of the contact, its purpose, context, characteristics of the interacting individuals, and the differences between individuals and theirsocieties. Those who are from less wealthy and influential societies borrow from those who are from wealthier and influential societies. For example, hosts from developing countries are more likely to borrow from tourists who are from developed countries. Host destinations that support tourism development borrow cultural elements from tourists’ cultures in order to follow the standards of their culture. As a result of cultural borrowing in developing countries, the original culture of the host societies becomes weaker (they develop a Western style of society) and the culture of the tourist societies becomes stronger. The effects of cultural borrowing may be positive and negative. Cultural borrowing may lead to learning elements from other cultures, better understanding of other people and to some extent influencing people’s patterns of life. Sometimes both cultures become similar. When the host culture lags technologically behind, cultural borrowing can revitalize its cultural features (art, culture, etc.) (Pearce, 1995). However, cultural borrowing may also lead to cultural collision: natives, for example, may replace their traditional costumes with cheap imitations of the city tourist’s dress (tshirts and jeans), while the tourists may adorn themselves with expensive imitations of native costumes (Gee, Makens, & Choy, 1997). 4.11 CULTURAL DRIFT Cultural drift refers to a temporary and random cultural change. A good example of cultural drift is a temporary change in language; over time, pronunciation, vocabulary, spelling and even grammar can change. Although some of these changes occur as a result of changes in education and technology, most of them are caused by the changes brought by different cultures, especially a continuous interaction between societies. In tourism these changes are brought by contact between tourists and locals. Since their contact is often seasonal and brief, the changes may be temporal. The temporary contact between tourists and hosts can result in visible changes in their behavior (phenotypic behavior). For example, the host can develop an attitude of servitude toward tourists. Since tourists visit the host’s culture for the purpose of leisure, and hosts are at work, both strive to achieve different goals: tourists strive for personal satisfaction and hosts for financial gains. This often results in exploiting each other and the host environment. Cultural drift assumes that the hosts’ and tourists’ behavior is changed temporarily for the duration of the tourist stay. The hosts and tourists may return to their original values and lifestyle when tourists leave. However, the changes in the host behavior may also be permanent. As the number of visitors to a destination increases and the contact between hosts and guests is more continuous, hosts may need to adjust to the needs of the tourists on a more permanent basis. Their values, norms, and standards are permanently changed and passed from one generation to the next. These reflect the changes to hosts’ genotypic behavior. The larger the contrast between the host culture and the tourist culture, the more significant the changes.Acculturation ‘‘results when groups of individuals from different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, which causes changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups (Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits, 1936). During the acculturation process, cultural elements of each group or individual are exchanged. As a result of this exchange, the original cultural patterns of either or both groups may be changed, but the groups remain culturally distinct (Kottak, 2007). Those who come to a new environment learn the behaviors, attitudes, and values of a culture that is different from their culture of origin (Lee, 1988). During the acculturation process, both changes of phenotypic and genotypic behaviors occur. The process of acculturation is not balanced. Acculturation occurs when contact takes place between a stronger culture and a weaker one. It is more likely to occur between the developed and the developing world. For example, tourists from powerful, developed countries influence locals from poorer, developing countries. Historically, acculturation was believed to be a one-way process whereby the individual coming to a new culture learned its values and norms. Acculturation can affect one or both groups. However, it influences one group more than the other (Berry & Sam, 1997). For example, although both the newcomer culture and the host culture undergo changes, the impact of the host culture on the newcomer culture is relatively stronger compared to the influence of the newcomer culture on the host culture (Kim, 1985). The newcomers need to adapt more to the host culture than the hosts need to adapt to the newcomer culture (Ogden, Ogden, & Schau, 2004). Traditionally, it was believed that in order to adapt to a culturally different environment individuals had to lose their cultural characteristic and gain characteristics of other cultural groups. Today it is believed that individuals may maintain their culture of origin while gaining characteristics of other cultural groups (Berry, 2003). Individuals themselves determine the amount of cultural characteristics and contact needed with the dominant culture to successfully adapt. Individuals who are not able to make this decision often experience stress resulting in reduced mental health (Berry, 2003; Burnham, Hough, Karno, Escobar, & Telles, 1987). Acculturation occurs at both individual and group levels. On the individual level, newcomers learn new values and develop new perceptions, attitudes, and personality (Berry, 1980). On the group level, acculturation occurs through socialization, social interaction, and mobility (Olmedo, 1979). Individual acculturation is called transculturation and occurs on a smaller scale and has less visible impact. It mostly occurs to long-stay visitors and first-generation immigrants, for whom the process is very difficult, due to the lack of precedents in the family. The degree of acculturation varies, depending on the individual’s interests and the motivation. An example of individual acculturation is learning regional vocabulary by a traveler who spent some time in a foreign country. The group acculturation occurs on a larger scale and is more visible. The group acculturation occurs due to the inflow of new technology, modernization, and advancement. For example, due to continuous contact, cultures exchanged foods, recipes, music, clothing, and technologies. However, the group acculturation mayhave damaging impact on the indigenous culture, leading to total assimilation of the indigenous people with the dominant culture. For example, many Native Americans of the United States, Taiwanese aborigines, and Australian aborigines have nearly lost their traditional culture when it was replaced by the dominant new culture. Acculturation is measured by the extent to which a person has adapted to a new culture and changed his or her own behavior as a result of the contact with a new culture. In the early 1900s many of the European migrants successfully assimilated and adapted American culture. However, the new immigrants to the United States (e.g., Hispanics) do not desire to be fully assimilated. Many of them want to maintain their own cultural identities. One of the most important indicators of acculturation is the extent to which newcomers (1) speak their native language versus host language, (2) become aware of the cultural heritage, identity, and social behavior of a new culture versus their culture, and (3) are culturally affiliated with a new culture and do not feel discrimination. Acculturation can be voluntary or forced. Acculturation is voluntary when the individuals voluntarily come to a new culture and learn its values and beliefs. Acculturation is forced when the individuals are forced to come to a new culture for political or economic reasons. Voluntary acculturation is quicker and easier because individuals are motivated to learn the host language, become familiar with the preferences and lifestyle of a new culture, and become affiliated with a new culture. Forced acculturation is difficult and it takes longer time. The process of acculturation is often referred to as the ‘‘Macdonaldization’’ of global cultures (Mason, 2003). Due to globalization, access to new technology and advancements in communication customers, regardless of their location, learn about new products and share common tastes and preferences on a worldwide scale. Homogenized products and global standards that imitate and assimilate patterns of social behavior, language, dress, and, cuisine are spread around the world (Ritzer & Liska, 1997). This standardization of products around the world blurs cultural lines (Jafari, 1996) that results in cultural homogeneity and standardization of tourism destinations. 4.13 CULTURAL ADAPTATION Cultural adaptation refers to adaptation of elements of other culture. Hosts need to adapt some elements of tourist culture in order to meet tourists’ needs. Host communities are usually pro-active and adapt to different categories of tourists despite stereotypes (Sofield, 2000). The process of adaptation depends on the duration of the tourist’s visit, duration and intensity of interaction between tourists and hosts, the strength of their cultural affiliations, and capacity to withstand the influences of each other. The process of hosts’ adaptation to tourists’ needs often leads to commoditization and commercialization of local culture. There are various adaptation models developed. For example, according to Doxey (1976), the resident population (hosts) changes their behavior and attitudes to tourists over time. When tourists first visit the destination, hosts greet them with euphoria andthen over time as the numbers of tourists and their impacts (positive and negative) grow, hosts’ attitudes move through stages of apathy and annoyance to a level of aggression towards the visitors (Mason, 2003). 4.14 CULTURAL ADJUSTMENT Cultural adaptation is often referred to as cultural adjustment. Trivonovich identified four different stages which every visitor may have to go through when adjusting to a new and different culture: (1) honeymoon stage, (2) hostility stage, (3) integration/ acceptance stage, and (4) home stage (http://www.cgu.edu/pages/945.asp). In the honeymoon stage visitors are excited and fascinated with everything new. They are happy, interested in a new life and other people, and willing to please and cooperate. In the hostility stage the visitors become anxious, judgmental, fearful, and often depressed. They are frustrated about new rules of life and customs. They are easily upset by small and unimportant things, are not able to sleep and eat, and suffer from headaches, indigestion, and other illnesses. They blame the new environment for own discomfort and unhappiness and reject it. Visitors become hostile to all that is new and foreign; they lose motivation and often withdraw. In the integration stage visitors begin to feel comfortable and relaxed in the new environment. They smile and joke, and are not concerned with minor misunderstandings which previously caused hostility. They make friends and start seeking more information about the new environment. In the home stage, visitors feel at home and treat their new culture as their native culture. They have successfully adjusted to the customs and standards of the new environment and are able to live successfully in both cultures (http://www.cgu.edu/pages/945.asp). Sharp (1992) identified similar stages of adjustment, such as (1) initial enthusiasm and excitement about visiting a new destination, (2) withdrawal and loneliness due to difficulties caused by cultural problems, (3) re-emergence and adjustment, and (4) achievement and enthusiasm after adapting to a new culture. There are several techniques that can be used to ease cultural adjustment. These include (1) being humble and having a genuine desire to meet and talk with local people, (2) expecting different things when traveling, (3) being open minded and not taking things seriously, (4) not letting others get on one’s nerves, (5) enjoying the experiences and being a good ambassador for one’s country, (6) learning about the new country to be visited, (7) not judging others by the people one has trouble with, (8) listening and observing, (9) understanding that other people may have different thought patterns, (10) being aware of what may be offensive to other people, and (11) reflecting on new experiences (http://www.cie.uci.edu/world/shock.html). 4.15 CULTURE ASSIMILATION There is some ambiguity between the concept of acculturation and cultural assimilation. Consequently both terms are often used interchangeably. However, there is a difference between these two concepts. Acculturation refers to cultural borrowingwhen some elements of the other culture are added without abandoning the native culture (individuals gain characteristics of another cultural group while maintaining their original culture, causing changes in the original cultural patterns. When contact between tourists and hosts is temporary, hosts get back to their traditional values and lifestyles after tourists leave. If the contact is very short, a host society can experience cultural drift. On the other hand, assimilation occurs when a person fully adapts mainstream values of a new culture and gives up his/her cultural heritage (Berry, 1980; Padilla, 1980). Assimilation is about the replacement of one set of cultural traits by another one. It is a very intense process of integration and absorption of members of a cultural group (typically immigrants) or minority groups into another one. During this process many cultural characteristics of those who try to assimilate can be lost. The differences between acculturation and assimilation can be presented on an acculturation–assimilation continuum. At one end of the continuum is the unacculturated extreme, where the individual’s cultural heritage strongly influences his/her behavior. At the other end is the acculturated extreme, where the individual is fully assimilated to the host culture and has fully adapted the values and attitudes of the host population (Hair & Anderson, 1972). At this end, assimilation rather than acculturation occurs (see Figure 4.1).Similarly to acculturation, assimilation can be voluntary (in the case with long-term visitors and immigrants) or forced upon an individual or group. When individuals or national groups are forced to assimilate for political or economic reasons they may strongly resist it. Sometimes governments put extreme pressure and even use force to assimilate the minority groups to a dominant culture. In this process some minority cultures can be exterminated and even physically eliminated because they usually do not have political power and are not in a formal position to impose elements of their culture on the dominant culture. Different individuals assimilate in a different way. Some can assimilate quickly (e.g., young and motivated), while others cannot assimilate at all (e.g., elderly). Children born in host countries to long-term visitors, such as guest workers, diplomats, soldiers, or immigrant parents, do not have trouble assimilating. These children easily associate with the host culture on a regular basis and treat the culture into which they have been born as their native culture. However, new long-term visitors and immigrants and their children have to adapt first before they assimilate to the host societies; they retain or modify elements of their native culture depending on how the host culture meets their needs.Individuals try to assimilate with the new environment by learning the language of the host country, making new friends, finding a job, or going to school. Host societies also try to adapt to newcomers by accepting them as their own, providing them with language classes, helping to find schools and jobs, and giving them preferential treatment over themselves. The effects of assimilation may be positive and negative. Assimilation may lead to learning, understanding, and accepting a new culture and its people. However, it may also lead to the minimization of the distinctive features of the native cultures and even their total disappearance. 4.16 ENCULTURATION Enculturation refers to the learning of what is contained in culture. It is the process of learning the accepted norms and values of the culture or society in which the individual lives, what is and is not permissible within that society’s framework, and the individual role within society. Enculturation also involves learning the language and ways of life of other people and their countries. Enculturation is about learning from other people how to behave. Thus, enculturation results in behavioral similarities and differences across societies. Much of learning occurs through communication (speech, words, and gestures), observation of others and emulating their behavior (e.g., using different slang, expressions, and dress), education, and socialization (through social events and behaviors that prevail in a particular culture). Thus, enculturation also refers to socialization (Segall, Dasen, Berry, & Poortinga, 1990). Parents play a very important role in a child’s learning a culture. Enculturation is a life-long process. It can be conscious or unconscious. Individuals are usually unaware of how much they learn. People who are most thoroughly enculturated are the least aware of their culture’s role in influencing them (Segall, Dasen, Berry, & Poortinga, 1990). Enculturation is sometimes referred to as acculturation, a word which originally referred only to exchanges of cultural features with foreign cultures. 4.17 DEMONSTRATION EFFECT Demonstration effect is the effect on the behavior of individuals caused by observation of the actions of others and their consequences (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonstration_effect). The example of demonstration effect includes individuals or countries that adapt cultural elements and policies used by those who have been successful in adapting them. The purpose of demonstration effect is to emulate the success of others. In tourism, demonstration effect refers to local residents adapting the styles and manners of visiting tourists. Locals notice the superior material possessions of the visitors and wish to have the same. One of the positive effects of demonstration effectis that it encourages residents to better work and productivity. Particularly, in developing countries hosts can be motivated to perform better because they can see in tourists the standard of living they want to follow. However, the expensive cameras and watches carried by tourists can not only be the objects of admiration and motivation to work harder, but also a source of anger and even threat. Demonstration effect can be disruptive; locals can become resentful of visitors because they are unable to obtain the goods and lifestyle demonstrated by them. The exposure of the host society to tourists’ goods or ways of living can create unhappiness of hosts with what they previously regarded as acceptable. Demonstration effect can often generate jealousy, resentment, and even hatred of tourists in the developing host countries, especially, when locals see they cannot be as wealthy as tourists and have the same standard of living. Demonstrating the Western way of living, either through travel and tourism or media, to host countries that have not reached the same level of development and wealth, may be a sign of egoism on behalf of tourists. However, international travelers from developed countries are not always aware of the socio-economic situation of the host countries in which they travel and thus do not always understand the effects of their behavior on the local population. Consequently, tourists are not always to be blamed for their behavior. Demonstration effect is most often brought by commercial and media activities which are to be blamed. Young people are particularly susceptible to demonstration effect. Demonstration effect encourages young people to leave their families and home land, especially rural areas, and move to urban areas or even overseas in search of the better ‘‘demonstrated’’ lifestyle. Demonstration effect may be responsible for social divisions between the young and old members of a society, and conflicts rather than learning and cooperation (Mason, 2003). 4.18 CULTURAL CONFLICT Cultural conflicts are created by cultural contacts. Conflicts arise because those in contact (individuals or groups) are from different cultures. Culture is a major factor in culture conflict. In particular cultural differences that cause misunderstanding and value clashes, cause culture conflicts. People are cultural beings, and culture is part of their identity, the way they perceive and act in the world and the way they interact. Culture affects their relationships, how they develop meanings, create identities, understand their roles and responsibilities, and argue and negotiate. Culture is an important component in human conflicts. Human conflicts are cultural conflicts. In all human conflicts tensions develop due to inaccurate communication or stressed relationships, which are due to differences in culture. Even conflict resolutions are influenced by culture. For example, the Kosovo conflict or Israeli–Palestinian or Indian–Pakistani conflicts are not about territory and sovereignty issues; they are also about making different meanings, perceiving the world, and acknowledging and legitimizing own cultural identities and ways of living.Societies as well as individuals who share cultural similarities understand each other, develop mutual relationships, and group themselves around their values. Those who do not share cultural values and preferences have difficulties with understanding each other and are not successful in developing relationships; thus they are increasingly in conflict with each other. The question is whether global tourism will be characterized by increasing cultural understanding or conflicts? What is the likelihood of cultural understanding and conflicts between people? Whether international travel traffic has increased its impact on human contact and relationships is often debatable. It is generally assumed that international tourism reduces the probability of cultural conflict and leads to cultural understanding and peace. However, there is not much evidence to confirm this assumption. In fact, to the contrary, there is much evidence that increasing contact between people from different cultures may be a highly divisive force for international tourism (see Chapter 8). One may even say that it is unlikely that increasing contact between people from different cultures will ease international tensions or promote greater international understanding and good relations among countries. Even economic benefits that tourism brings cannot foster understanding and peace among nations. Increased communication, trade, and travel multiply interactions among cultures, and increasingly encourage people to pay attention to their cultural uniqueness and identity. For example, two Europeans, one German and the other French, interacting with each other, identify each other as German and French. However, when interacting with two Arabs, one Saudi and the other Egyptian, they define themselves as Europeans and Arabs. Consequently, in an increasingly globalized world there will be a very strong focus on cultural, ethnic and even civilizational identity. People will increasingly desire to emphasize their identities which may be a determining force for generating future cultural conflicts. Cultural conflicts are more dangerous than conflicts between social or economic classes. Vaclav Havel, a former president of the Czech Republic stated that ‘‘cultural conflicts are increasing and are more dangerous today than at any time in history’’ (Havel, 1994). Nations who share similar culture, values, social relations, customs and philosophical assumptions and have similar outlook on life usually support ethnic conflicts, tribal wars, and violence between groups from different cultures. Thus, it is expected that future conflicts between nations and individuals will be generated by cultural factors rather than by economics or ideology (Delors, 1993). In today’s increasingly multicultural world, global tourism will be characterized by increasing cultural conflicts (Huntington, 1996). Cultural differences will be undoing the world. The more the world will become globalized, the more pressure there will be on societies and individuals to become culturally unique and distinct. The existence and nature of the cultural conflicts will greatly depend upon understanding and accepting the cultural differences as differences rather than deficiencies. As a result, those who want to avoid conflicts and function more effectively in a new global world will require cultural competency (see Chapter 17)SUMMARY With an excessive demand for tourism products many societies experience erosion of local cultures. Traditional cultures are being commoditized and commercialized exploited over which locals lose rights. Although commoditization destroys authenticity of local culture it also helps its conservation and preservation. Culture change refers to changes in culture due to contact between culturally different groups. Cultural diffusion defines the spread of cultural elements from one culture to another. Various theories failed to explain why some cultural elements are not being diffused. Cultural borrowing occurs when two cultures borrow each other’s traditions, customs, or values. Although cultural borrowing may lead to learning other cultures, it may also generate cultural collision. Cultural drift refers to a temporary and random cultural change. The tourist–host contact can result in temporary and visible (phenotypic) or permanent (genotypic) changes in behavior. Acculturation refers to adding some elements of the other culture to one’s native culture and causing changes in one’s original cultural patterns. Acculturation is measured by the extent to which a person has adapted to a new culture. Cultural adaptation refers to adaptation of elements of another culture. Hosts need to adapt some elements of tourists’ culture to meet tourists’ needs. There are various stages of cultural adaptation or adjustment and techniques for easing cultural adjustment. Culture assimilation occurs when a person fully adapts mainstream values of a new culture and gives up his/her cultural heritage. The differences between acculturation and assimilation can be presented on an acculturation–assimilation continuum. Acculturation and assimilation can be voluntary or forced. Although assimilation may lead to learning a new culture it can also lead to a total disappearance of native cultures. Enculturation refers to the learning of what is contained in culture; it often results in behavioral similarities and differences across societies. Demonstration effect refers to local residents adapting the styles and manners of visiting tourists. Demonstration effect frequently creates jealousy and hatred of tourists in the developing host country. Culture conflicts are caused by misunderstanding and value clashes and are more dangerous than
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