Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) conducted a study examining whether taking notes by hand could lead to deeper processing of material than taking notes with a laptop. They flipped a coin to assign one half of the students participating in their study to watch a video lecture while taking notes with paper and pencil, and the other half of the students to watch the same video lecture while taking notes with a laptop. Thirty minutes after the lecture, all students look the same test on the material covered in the lecture, and a research assistant with no knowledge of the two groups graded the tests. The results showed that students who took notes by hand scored higher on conceptual questions (e.g., compare-and-contrast questions) than students who took notes with a laptop. Match each causal criterion to the corresponding component of the study. Drag each item on the left to its matching item on the right. temporal precedence internal validity covariance The students who took notes by hand scored higher than the students who took notes with a laptop. Press Space to open Participants took notes (either by hand or using a laptop) before taking the test. Press Space to open Participants