SHOW THE TEXTBOOK, EVIDENCE AND DETAIL, INCLUDE MIND MAP EACH PART

SUBJECT - INTERCULTURAL MANAGEMENT

TOPIC 2. EXPLORING CULTURE

This chapter will provide a framework to guide readers in discovering the meaning of culture. Exploring cultures can be compared to exploring the ocean. On the surface, riding the waves, we can observe artifacts, rituals, and behavior. These provide clues as to what lies underneath. But to verify this, one has to look below. That means asking questions to discover the reasons: the values and beliefs which are given to explain that behavior. But further down rest the underlying assumptions which are difficult to access and need to be inferred, through interpretation.

Part of the problem in recognizing the impact of culture on management stems from the proliferation of definitions and from the nature of the tools and equipment used in exploration. Culture has been defined in many ways, for instance as shared patterns of behavior as proposed by anthropologist Margaret Mead or as systems of shared meaning or understanding as proposed by Claude Lvi-Strauss and Clifford Greets.

Management scholar Ed Schein defines culture as a set of basic assumptions shared solutions to universal problems of external adaptation (how to survive) and internal integration (how to stay together) which have evolved over time and are handed down from one generation to the next. The appeal of this definition is that it directly addresses the key challenges facing managers: finding solutions to problems of external adaption developing strategies; and of internal integration designing organizations and determining HR practices.

Method of discovery

When exploring culture the search for meaning calls for an interpretive approach. This approach involves extensive observation and interviewing to provide thick description. From the patterns and themes that emerge, grounded theories are developed. Further exploration involves digging up evidence to support or modify the theory. Discovering the meaning of culture calls for a problem-solving and action-oriented approach and requires learning how to build theories as well as test them.

Providing a map

There can be concrete expressions or embodiments of culture but the meanings are often not obvious. Meaning has to be derived by questioning, and by again questioning the responses given. Thus culture can be detected at multiple levels which require different approaches: observation, interviews and questionnaires, and interpretation.

Culture is founded upon basic assumptions which give rise to different beliefs and values, and manifest themselves in different behaviors and artifacts. What is crucial is to understand the underlying reasons for artifacts and behavior and its potential impact on daily business life.

Artifacts and behavior

Cultural assumptions can be observed in artifacts and behavior such as architecture and interior design, greeting rituals, dress and codes of address, and contracts. So to discover the meaning of culture, we need to start with observation.

Architecture and design

Architecture and design hint at the underlying assumptions regarding internal integration bringing people together or keeping them apart; and external adaptation harmonizing with or dominating nature. They indicate the importance of hierarchy, of collective rather than individual effort, the preferred type of activity and interaction between people.

Greeting rituals

Greeting rituals and the degree of body contact expected in greeting varies greatly between different countries and the importance of these rituals should not be overlooked. For instance, a general wave of the hand to say hello to everyone when arriving at the office, as in the United States, is considered insulting to French co-workers who expect to be greeted individually by name, shaking hands and making eye contact.

Forms of address

The degree of formality in addressing business relations sends important signals that may not be intended, anything from respect, to friendliness, to disdain. Formality is expressed in the use of last (family) names, the formal version of you, and titles and, like with the greeting rituals, varies greatly between countries.

Making contact

The amount of physical space considered necessary to be comfortable also varies between countries whereas the idea of intrusion is not just physical but it is also psychological. Thus, what many North Americans consider a perfectly friendly line of questioning may be deemed impertinent or overly familiar by non-Americans. This difference is particularly likely to manifest itself at the getting to know each other stage of an international negotiation or prospective collaboration. Observations of how people get to know each other, the degree of formality and personal contact preferred, reveal underlying assumptions about what is considered to be public versus private space.

Dress codes

Another cultural artifact, the prevailing dress code, also differs in degree of formality and can serve as a subtle signaling mechanism. Some companies engage in dressing down days and some other encourage workers to dress in ways to match the customers. However, efforts to encourage a particular dress code, at work or otherwise, may be rejected, particularly in France and Italy, where the style of dress is an expression of the individual.

Written versus verbal contracts

There are different expectations of what is more binding, a written contract or ones word. These different expectations may well be reflected in the estimated numbers of lawyers per capita.

Beliefs and values

When questioned about their behavior, managers respond stating their beliefs and values. Beliefs are statements of fact, about the way things are. Values are preferred states about the way things should be, about ideals. In this part, the focus is more on beliefs and values regarding what make for success, both for the organization and the manager, which represent cultural solutions to problems of external adaptation and internal integration.

Criteria for success

National cultures differ in their perception of for whom the firm exists: the shareholders, customers, or employees. Different stakeholders mean different criteria success. Therefore beliefs and values differ in terms of what is considered to be important: product integrity, technological leadership, market share, customer satisfaction, or shareholder value. Although all these factors are relevant to corporate success, cultural preferences come into play.

Product quality

The importance of product quality differs among countries. For instance, in Germany product quality is often considered more important than customer satisfaction or meeting deadlines.

Technological leadership

The premium placed on engineering and science degrees encourages emphasis on technology, innovation, and grand design in France, sometimes at the expense of commercial relevance.

Market share

Japanese firms are more willing to invest time and money in understanding customers overseas due to their limited domestic market.

What is management?

Trying to define the meaning of management also shows up differences in beliefs and values. Some cultures place more emphasis on task orientation whereas others might put more emphasis on developing people.

The right person for the job

The beliefs and values regarding the right person for the job can be inferred from artifacts such as the executive job advertisement. Beliefs about who is the right manager, what is management, and what constitutes success are ultimately linked to values which indicate what is considered to be important, and thus deserving of attention. These values in turn influence the degree to which organizations are seen as task- or people-oriented. It will also indicate the types of behavior, values, and beliefs expected of the people it seeks to hire. But what is perhaps more interesting is to try to get a glimpse of the underlying world-view, in order to better understand the rationale for what is valued and what is believed to be true. Digging deeper leads one to the basic assumptions.