Text 1-Examination -The action or process of testing a person's knowledge, skill, or competence, by means of written or oral questions or practical tasks; the process of being tested in this way

Text 2 - THISSEN, D., & WAINER, H. (2001). Test Scoring. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. p1

Examination -The action or process of testing a person's knowledge, skill, or competence, by means of written or oral questions or practical tasks; the process of being tested in this way.

Text 3 - (extract from) TAPLEY, J. (2016) The Case for Examinations in Higher Education, Advanced Journal of Educational Psychology 10 (4) p121

In 2011, Australia's Macquarie University proposed the abolition of examinations. In a paper that generated controversy in the field of higher education, Macquarie's arts dean, John Simons, said: "Students would probably achieve more of their potential if they were freed from the pressure of examinations." (Simons, 2011, p 3). The area of examinations, particularly within the field of higher education, has been the subject of much debate for many years. This short article will not only look at some of the major arguments against examinations, but will also consider that the counter-arguments to these. One of the major arguments against examinations is the negative impact that they can have on a student psychologically. Test anxiety is considered a serious issue in the field of education and relates to the extent to which individuals find examinations threatening (Spielberger & Vagg, 1995). For those who suffer from test anxiety, it can have many negative effects. These include negative thoughts and depreciating self-statements that occur during assessments (e.g. 'If I fail this exam my whole life is a failure') and the performance-inhibiting difficulties that may arise from anxiety (e.g. recalling facts and difficulty in reading and understanding questions). In addition, it can affect a student physically (trembling, tense muscles) and also their behaviour (poor study skills, procrastination). In a controlled study on effects of examination stress, it identified that both sleeping and eating habits can be negatively impacted (Jernelov et al 2009). It could be therefore concluded that the test anxiety could have a serious impact upon a student's final result. However, contrary to this argument, there are some believe that stress can have a positive impact upon students. It has been argued that stress can be positive as it acts as motivator for students. Hearing (2015) highlights that numerous scientific studies have shown that retaining knowledge for exams could actually become easier under acute stress. Halestorm (2006) identified that in most cases, it was students who were unprepared for examinations that suffered the most anxiety, those who considered themselves to be prepared were much less likely to be anxious. Furthermore, the problem' of examination stress leads some people to the view that students should be doing more coursework because they find it less stressful. However, this fails to take into account that coursework has its own forms of stress that some students find as stressful as examinations: managing projects involving different elements such as data collection, literature reviewing and group work, managing workloads and deadlines (Putwain, 2008).

Text 4 - (adapted from) VAN BERGEN, P. & LANE, R. (2017) Should we do away with exams altogether? No, but we need to rethink their design and purpose, The Conversation [online] https://theconversation.com/should-we-do-away-with-exams-altogether-no-but-we-need-to-rethink-their-design-and-purpose-67647 [last accessed 27/04/19]

Over the past two decades there have been frequent calls to abandon exams. The major criticisms of exams in schools and universities tend to relate to either the misuse or overuse of exams, and not to the sensible use of exams in partnership with other assessment tasks such as presentations, research reports, creative responses, essays, reflective journals and so forth. However, rethinking the way in which some exams are delivered does not require us to abandon all exams in favour of other assessment tasks. Exams allow students to demonstrate their breadth of knowledge across a particular subject. This is more difficult to achieve with other forms of assessment. Students also demonstrate their ability to retrieve and apply knowledge on the spot: a skill necessary in many professions. Finally, exams are much more difficult for students to cheat than in other forms of assessment. One of the most common arguments offered against exams is that they test for rote recall only and not for deeper understanding. Students have complained about the frustration of sitting for an exam that focuses almost exclusively on the recall of isolated facts. Research shows that such exams are more common when teachers either write questions quickly or rely on published tests from testing banks. In both cases, the teacher has less opportunity to review whether or not the questions require deep understanding and higher-order thinking, which require the learner to both hold a strong body of disciplinary knowledge and be capable of applying it. The solution is not to abandon exams, but to change how poorly designed exam questions are written. Indeed a well-designed exam will assess the application of knowledge to real-world scenarios, the synthesis of knowledge across sub-topics, the ability to think critically, or to solve well-defined problems within a discipline. These higher-order processes depend entirely on the question being asked. According to research, even quite short professional development programs for teachers are effective in changing the way they write exam questions. Exams should not be used to assess the recall of meaningless facts: this is a misuse of the format. Another common argument is that exams do not enhance learning. In fact, exams do not just assess learning, they promote learning in several ways. They help students organise themselves to study which promotes self-regulation and metacognition, that is the understanding and control of one's own learning processes. It can be pointed out that this re-organising and elaborating on the to-be-tested material during study can enable deeper understanding of the material. The process of actively retrieving and applying that material multiple times during study is one of the best possible ways to strengthen knowledge. Just as practice helps muscles grow stronger during exercise, so too does it make connections in the brain grow stronger during study.

A test or examination (informally, exam or evaluation) is an assessment intended to measure a test-taker's knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness, or classification in many other topics. A test may be administered verbally, on paper, on a computer, or in a predetermined area that requires a test taker to demonstrate or perform a set of skills. Tests vary in style, rigor and requirements. For example, in a closed book test, a test taker is usually required to rely upon memory to respond to specific items whereas in an open book test, a test taker may use one or more supplementary tools such as a reference book or calculator when responding. A test may be administered formally or informally. A formal test might be a final examination administered by a teacher in a classroom or an I.Q. test administered by a psychologist in a clinic. Formal testing often results in a grade or a test score. A test score may be interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion, or occasionally both. The norm may be established independently, or by statistical analysis of a large number of participants.

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