Your reflection notes should be organized to present:

1. Key learning points from the three readings of your choice (a summary)
2. Your reflections
3. References

Reflections is underlined as this is considered one of the most important parts of the learning process. Based on the readings, you must consider your unique experiences and perspectives. And also Cite

OVERVIEW Based on the findings of the assessment, an action plan must be created. What goals and objectives will the organization establish, and what will the organization do as a result of the assessment and feedback? This chapter includes a form to assist practitioners in the process of doing action planning as a collaborative group, relying heavily on the use of the affinity diagram process described in the previous chapter. An overview of implementation options will be included in this chapter to suggest approaches that might be included in action plans. With the assessment and feedback completed, and with the input of those receiving the feedback, the steering team can now begin the process of deciding what to do in response to the assessment. This step, the Action Planning phase, is shown in Figure 5.1. A wide range of interventions is available to OD professionals. (An intervention is an activity designed to help achieve the goals and objectives established in the Action Planning phase.) What follows in this chapter is, first, a discussion of a process for separating training needs from other types of OD needs. This will be followed by a description of one approach to creating an action plan, followed by a brief overview of the range of implementation interventions available. DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN TRAINING AND OD NEEDS Many organizations suffer from something of a "training can fix everything" syndrome. Because several organizations are not familiar with the tools used by OD professionals, organizations may feel that they have a limited range of interventions from which to choose. While training is considered to be an OD intervention by most, it is, by far, not the only OD intervention available. So the question facing organizations and OD professionals working with the organization is, How can we know whether this situation requires a training solution or some other type of OD approach? There is, of course, no magic way to determine when training will be helpful and when some other type of intervention will be more helpful. But some processes can assist in making this determination. It is 102 EBSCOhost - printed on 1/25/2022 1:23 PM via LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use important to keep a systems perspective in trying to sort out what the cause of any problems identified might be and the solutions that might be tried to overcome them. When a problem appears to originate in a lack of expertise or knowledge, then it is probably a problem that can be addressed through training. If, on the other hand, the problem is a matter of policy or process, then there is likely to be a nontraining OD response. If the question is yes to "If it were a matter of life and death, could the individual perform this task?" then the problem is probably not a training problem. Keep in mind, in addressing this question, the expertise of the person who is making the recommendation. Unfortunately, because there are no requirements that must be met before someone can claim to be 103 Entry Assessment and Feedback Action Planning Start-up Evaluation Community and National Organization-wide Global Process Team Individual Adoption Separation Implementation Environment Organization or Suborganization Figure 5.1 Organization Development Process Model, Phase 4: Action Planning EBSCOhost - printed on 1/25/2022 1:23 PM via LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use an OD professional, people with limited expertise may be involved in making recommendations. This sometimes results in a whatever-is-inthe-toolkit approach to OD. So, if a person is primarily a trainer, then the answer to any organizational problem may be training. If that person is certified to use a certain process or tool, the use of that process or tool is often the recommendation. So, having or developing more knowledge about OD can help an organization become a better consumer of OD processes. It can also help avoid the problem of using a process to address findings of an assessment with the wrong intervention. Organizations, as consumers of OD, must understand what OD is and what it can and cannot do. The total quality management (TQM) movement has contributed a tool that can be extremely useful in determining the true (or root) cause of a problem. A cause-effect diagram, also known as a fishbone diagram, because of its appearance, or an Ishikawa diagram, named for the Japanese consultant who popularized it, is designed to identify all of the causes of a specified problem and then, from these possible causes, determine the one that is most likely to be the root cause. Figure 5.2 shows a blank cause-effect diagram; directions for completing one are provided in the next section. How to Use a Cause-Effect Diagram Determining the real or root cause of a problem is critical in planning action in response to an organizational assessment. Using the diagram in Figure 5.2, follow these steps: 104 ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT Figure 5.2 Cause-Effect Diagram (Blank) EBSCOhost - printed on 1/25/2022 1:23 PM via LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 1. At the right side of the diagram, in the box, write the problem that the organization faces. 2. Brainstorm possible causes of the problem. Place each major cause on one of the primary "bones" coming off of the spine (or main bone). If you are not sure where to begin, a common approach is to label the "ribs" as Materials, People, Methods, Machines, and Environment. 3. As additional causes are brainstormed, the decision needs to be made regarding whether the suggestion is a main cause or a subcause of a major cause that has already been written on the diagram. If it is a main cause, it should be written on a primary bone. If it is a subcause, a line (a minor bone) should be drawn off the primary bone and the subcause written on that line. Subcauses of subcauses can also occur. 4. This process continues until there are no additional causes, subcauses, or sub-subcauses identified. 5. Once all ideas have been placed on the diagram (see Figure 5.3), encourage facilitated discussion about the root causes, what each alleged root cause means, and how likely it is that this is the most important cause of the problem. 6. None of these primary "ribs" is detailed enough to be a root cause. The next step is to develop each rib into two or three sublevels. For example, "Improved Competition" might have a number of first-level items: more stores opened, more companies, competitors more innovative, competitors provide better Action Planning and Introduction to Interventions 105 Losing Customers More stores opened More companies Competitors more innovative Competitors provide better training Product Quality Quality of Training Poor Selection Procedures Poor Checkout Procedures Inadequate Advertising Improved Competition Figure 5.3 Cause-Effect Diagram (Completed) EBSCOhost - printed on 1/25/2022 1:23 PM via LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use training, and so on. A next level might also be explored for each of these; for example, for "competitors provide better training," another series of ribs might mention "on-site sales training every month," "OD consultants brought in to help HR," and the like. If these points in turn can be developed further, they should be. 7. Once everyone understands all of the causes to the deepest level possible and has adequately discussed the most likely root cause of the problem, participants then vote on what they believe the root cause to be. This can be done by having each person put a check mark opposite the cause believed to be the root cause, or each person could be given three (for example) sticky colored dots to place directly on the diagram. 8. The cause that gets the most votes is tentatively identified as the possible root cause. An action plan is then developed to address that root cause. CREATING AN ACTION PLAN Whenever any team is working on a process or a task to be done that is not documented or recorded somewhere, has not become routine, and involves a complexity that exceeds just a few steps, an action plan can be a helpful way to organize and complete the process or task within a timely manner. Thus, an action plan can be used to address the root causes identified through the use of cause-effect diagrams or problems that are identified in some other way. Keep in mind as you proceed that an intervention has a greater probability of being successful if it builds on strengths that exist within an organization. The following steps describe how to create an action plan. Use the form shown in the Appendix 5.1 as a template for creating action plans. A completed sample action plan is also included at the end of this chapter, in Appendix 5.2. 1. Write a clear goal statement that everyone on the team understands and accepts. Add strategy, outcomes, and team leader for that particular action plan. 2. Brainstorm a list of all of the steps that will need to be accomplished for the successful accomplishment of the outcomes 106 ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT EBSCOhost - printed on 1/25/2022 1:23 PM via LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use desired; each item should be written on a large sheet of paper and posted on the prepared sticky fabric (see the previous chapter for details on doing an affinity diagram). 3. Review all sheets (as would normally be done with brainstorming). Remove all sheets with items that do not have agreement; write new notes if clarification is needed or if sheets/points are to be combined. 4. Put the sheets in chronological order, preferably on the left side of the sticky fabric so the arrangement matches that which will ultimately be transferred to the action planning form (see Appendix 5.1). The team members move the notes around without discussion. If disagreement occurs about the placement of a sheet/point, another team member can move the sheet back to where it was or to another place. This process continues until no one moves another note. Another possible way to accomplish this phase is to have the team members discuss where the sheets should go, with the facilitator moving the sheets as consensus emerges. If there appears to be considerable disagreement (e.g., the participants continue moving the sheets around without consensus emerging), discussion may be a more effective way to proceed. 5. When the group agrees on the order, they next attach a name (or names or a team) to each step to show who will be responsible for it, along with a date signifying when that step should be done. Budgets should be estimated for each step that will encounter costs. 6. This information is then prepared in the appropriate format, as per the action planning form in the chapter appendix. Having a blank copy of this form in a computer file (a template) ensures that everyone will be using the same format, and a format does not need to be created each time it is needed. When completed, the form should be reviewed at the next meeting and necessary changes made. 7. Review the action plan at each team meeting. The action plan should be considered flexible. Update as necessary by completing the "Revised Date" and "Revision Number" columns, as well as the "Date Completed" column when the step is completed. The responsible team may find it necessary to shift or Action Planning and Introduction to Interventions 107 EBSCOhost - printed on 1/25/2022 1:23 PM via LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use change any factor on the form. Whether they need approval or not depends on the extent of the change and how the change might influence other decisions. As money is spent, fill in the "Actual Spent" column. Modify the action plan as necessary. 8. Periodically, review the "Revision Number" column to determine where the planning process did or did not work well. Try to determine why so many revisions were needed, if that situation applies, or why no revisions were needed, if that situation applies. Compare "Budget" and "Actual Spent" columns; determine why gaps exist, if they do. The intent is to learn from the process so that future action plans will be improved. INTERVENTIONS AVAILABLE TO OD PROFESSIONALS One of the important roles for an OD professional in the Action Planning phase is to help an organization understand what options are available in terms of addressing concerns that emerge from an assessment process. Because OD can influence an organization at many levels, interventions that are implemented in OD can be targeted at the individual, the team or work group (both within the group and with other groups), the process, the global components of an organization, or the whole organization level. Some of the interventions available at each of these levels will be briefly described in this section. Subsequent chapters will describe these interventions in more detail and, briefly, how each can be used. Also, because OD efforts are not limited to the organization but can also impact communities, nations, and regions, another chapter will focus on these emerging perspectives for OD. The statement of OD Principles of the OD Network, referenced in Chapter 1, contains a list of 51 "Organization Development Methodology, Technology and Tools." And that list is not even close to being a comprehensive list of all of the interventions and approaches used in OD. Likewise, this book cannot contain all of the interventions and approaches used in OD and the new approaches that surface regularly. One of the problems with the OD field, however, is that we have not done a good job of doing the research necessary to determine which approaches seem to work best and when and which approaches seem not to work at all. Therefore, we are left with many fads or "flavors of 108 ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT EBSCOhost - printed on 1/25/2022 1:23 PM via LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use the month"someone's idea of what is the latest and best tool for the field. We need to discriminate carefully when new approaches are put forward and be willing to review both the old and the new approaches critically to determine whether they add value to our work as OD professionals. Individual Interventions Some have found it strange to think about OD as having concern for the individual, given that "organization" is part of organization development. Yet, if we recognize that an organization consists of many subparts (also known as subsystems) and that every organization is made up of many individuals (who are each a subpart of the organization), then it should not be surprising that we do focus on the individual as one aspect of the work of an OD professional. Laboratory Training Groups. Laboratory training groups, or T-groups, emerged in the 1960s and were very popular for a while, but they are less popular today because many people believe that they have too much risk associated with them. A small group meets over 2 to 3 days with the intent of providing in-depth feedback to each other as to how each individual is perceived within the group. The purpose of this process is to increase self-awareness, especially related to how one interacts in a group. Coaching. Coaching is defined as "the process of equipping people with the tools, knowledge, and opportunities they need to develop themselves and become more effective" (Peterson & Hicks, 1996, p. 14). Coaching can occur at any level of the organization, though it is more likely to be available to senior managers and executives. Coaching is almost always offered by external resources. Mentoring. In contrast with coaching, mentoring is often offered internally. OD becomes involved when formal mentoring systems are put in place. The objective of mentoring is to help individuals take advantage of opportunities for career and personal enhancement. To avoid conflict of interest, it is often offered by someone who is at least two levels higher than the person being mentored. Action Planning and Introduction to Interventions 109 EBSCOhost - printed on 1/25/2022 1:23 PM via LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use Mentoring of some sort almost always occurs informally. When formal mentoring is put in place, individuals identified as high potentials for promotion, or those from protected classes (women, minorities) but who tend not to have others from the same class available to mentor them, are usually the recipients of mentoring. Self-Awareness Tools. Many self-awareness tools are available. One of the most popular, referenced in Chapter 1, is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which purports to help individuals understand four aspects of their personality. While such instruments can be very useful in generating conversation, their validity is often lacking or even undetermined. Reflection. Schn (1983) popularized the concept that practitioners improve through reflection on their work, their interactions, their successes, and their failures. This self-assessment process is intended to occur regularly. The role of the OD professional in this process is to pass on ways that might be useful (meditation, journaling) in helping employees with this self-assessment. Training, Education, and Development. Much training, education, and development occur outside the realm of OD, yet OD professionals also need to understand the role that these three concepts have in contributing to excellence in an organization. In 1970, Len Nadler (Nadler & Nadler, 1989) first laid out his model for defining human resource developmenta concept in which he included training (with direct and immediate application to the person's work), education (with longterm application to the person's work), and development (for individual purposes). Leadership Development. A very popular concept, though very difficult to define, is development of leaders for the organization. Such programs often fail to distinguish clearly between management development, executive development, and leadership development. The first two (management and executive) are position-specific, whereas leadership development, by definition but not always in practice, applies across the organization and across levels. 110 ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT EBSCOhost - printed on 1/25/2022 1:23 PM via LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use Multirater (360-Degree) Feedback. Multirater feedback, also called 360-degree feedback, is "the process of receiving perceptions of one's performance from a variety of sources, typically supervisor(s), peers, direct reports, self, and even customers" (McLean, Sytsma, & KerwinRyberg, 1995, p. 1 in Section 4:4). Input to the process can be provided through interviews or surveys. Research (McLean, 1997) suggests both problems with its use as a performance appraisal process but also potential when used solely for developmental purposes. Job Design. Examining the components of a job may lead to the conclusion that greater (or less) variety may enhance the job for most people. The challenge for the OD professional is to find the balance between work efficiency and job satisfaction. Job Descriptions. Identifying the tasks included in a specific job leads to a job description. Whether to construct a job description is somewhat controversial. In some work environments, job descriptions lead to rigidity by assigning people to specific tasks in their work, rather than being able to assign people to the highest-priority tasks at any given time. On the other hand, job descriptions can help ensure that all tasks that must be performed are assigned. Responsibility Charting. Responsibility charting is a formal process of clarifying ambiguous areas of responsibility in complex relationship situations in order to eliminate overlapping responsibilities and to ensure that there are no uncovered areas of responsibility. Policies Manual. To avoid confusion about what organizational policies are and to help individuals know what their responsibilities are as employees, most organizations have a policies manual. This handbook may contain a wide range of topics, including vacations, holidays, benefits, pay periods, promotion processes, grievance procedures, sexual harassment, diversity, and so on. An OD person may be responsible for determining what policies the organization wishes to include, writing the policies, and then facilitating meetings to have the policies approved. A good policies manual also provides the organization with legal protection and employees with clear expectations and workplace guidelines. Action Planning and Introduction to Interventions 111 EBSCOhost - printed on 1/25/2022 1:23 PM via LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use Values Clarification and Values Integration. Often people do not give conscious thought to what their values are. Yet, much of our behavior emerges out of our values. Values clarification exercises help individuals determine what their values are. While research indicates that there is no clear connection between one's values and one's behaviors (McKenzie-Mohr & Smith, 1999), identifying the barriers that exist between values and behaviors can help in the integration process. Values integration is a process that helps individuals compare and align their values with those needed in the job and in their personal life. This process may lead to making changes in their jobs and their personal lives, or actually moving to a new job or into new personal lives. Conflict Management. Historically, in both business and society, reference was made to conflict resolution, a phrase seldom seen in the OD field as the desirable outcome of working with conflict in an organization. Conflict implies a difference of opinion, and it is only through some level of conflict that innovation and creativity can flourish. Thus, we do not want to resolve conflict, in the sense of removing it from the environment. Instead, we want to be able to ensure that healthy conflict is nourished and unhealthy conflict is banished. Unhealthy conflict occurs when the focus of the differences is not on the idea but on the individual. Any abusive conflict is to be avoided, and, when it occurs, it must be addressed and eliminated. Thus, the preferred term used by OD professionals is conflict management. Action Learning. Action learning is an approach to working with and developing people that uses work on an actual project or problem as the way to learn. Participants work in small groups to take action to solve their problem and learn how to learn from that action. Often a learning coach works with the group in order to help the members learn how to balance their work with the learning from that wo