Your task is to write an essay that analyzes the article, "Criminalization of Homelessness". Focus your attention on the most important parts, examine them, connect them to the whole, and use that to increase your reader's understanding and perspective of the text. You should provide context and background for your text and may discuss other texts that are related to the text you select, but the primary focus of your essay must be one text. Connect your Essay 1, conclusions, thesis, and the source to your essay. Your essay requires 1000 words a total.

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Your name, Angeli 1 the course number, the Page numbers essay Elizabeth L. Angeli Green text boxes begin on and number and contain explanations with page 1. of MLA style draft Type your number, English 101 guidelines. name next to and the the page date of the Essay 1 Draft 1 number so Blue boxes contain paper are that it directions for writing double- appears on spaced. 14 December 2008 and citing in MLA every page. style. Toward a Recovery of Nineteenth Century Farming Handbooks centered and written in 12-paint, While researching texts written about nineteenth century farming, I found a few Times New Roman authors who published books about the literature of nineteenth century farming, font. The title is not The bolded, in traduc- particularly agricultural journals, newspapers, pamphlets, and brochures. These authors underlined, tory DF paragraph, italicized, or introdue- often placed the farming literature they were studying into an historical context by tion. should set the context for discussing the important events in agriculture of the year in which the literature was The thesis the rest of statement the paper published (see Demaree, for example). However, while these authors discuss journals, usually in Tell your the Last readers why you newspapers, pamphlets, and brochures, I could not find much discussion about another sentence of the are writing introdus- and why important source of farming knowledge: farming handbooks. My goal in this paper is to tion your topk important bring this source into the agricultural literature discussion by connecting three The thesis is a clear position agricultural handbooks from the nineteenth century with nineteenth century agricultural that you will support history. and develop If your throughout paper is To achieve this goal, I have organized my paper into four main sections, two of your paper. lang, you This may want which have sub-sections. In the first section, I provide an account of three important sentence to write guides or about how controls your paper events in nineteenth century agricultural history: population and technological changes, the your paper organized. This will distribution of scientific new knowledge, and farming's influence on education. In the help your readers second section, I discuss three nineteenth century farming handbooks in connection with follow your the important events described in the first section. I end my paper with a third section the offers research questions that could be answered in future versions of this paper and MLA requires double-spacing throughout a document; do not single-space any part of the document.Angeli 2 conclude with a fourth section that discusses the importance of expanding this particular Use personal pronouns (, project. I also include an appendix after the Works Cited that contains images of the three We, US, eta.) at your handbooks I examined. Before I can begin the examination of the three handbooks, instructor's discretion. however, I need to provide an historical context in which the books were written, and it is When using headings The headings used here follow an A, B-, C- to this that I now turn. MLA, title the main level system to break the text into smaller sections (B-level sections. The different levels help organize headers) in a different the paper and maintain consistency in the Headers, style font than the paper's organization. You may come up with though not paper's title, eg. in your own headings as long as they are required by small caps. consistent MLA style. The help the paragraph overall after the B- The nineteenth century saw many changes to daily American life with an increase in structura BVa and handers population, improved methods of transportation, developments in technology, and the organiza start flush tion of a left after paper, Use the rise in the importance of science. These events impacted all aspects of nineteenth century them at handings your American life, most significantly those involved in slavery and the Civil War, but a large instructor's discretion to help part of American life was affected, a part that is quite often taken for granted: the life of your reader follow your ideas the American farmer. Use another One of the biggest changes, as seen in nineteenth century America's census style, a.g.. italics, to reports, is the dramatic increase in population. The 1820 census reported that over 10 differon- Hate the C- million people were living in America; of those 10 million, over 2 million were engaged If there is a gramma headers tical from the B in agriculture. Ten years prior to that, the 1810 census reported over 7 million people mechanical, or spelling headers. The were living in the states; there was no category for people engaged in agriculture. In this error in the text you paragraph are citing continues directly ten-year time span, then, agriculture experienced significant improvements and changes type the quote as it after the appears. header. that enhanced its importance in American life. Follow the quote with One of these improvements was the developments of canals and steamboats, "[sic]." which allowed farmers to "sell what has previously been unsalable [sic]" and resulted in a "substantial increase in [a farmer's] ability to earn income" (Danhof 5). ThisAngeli 3 improvement allowed the relations between the rural and urban populations to strengthen, resulting in an increase in trade. The urban population (defined as having over 2,500 Use footnotes to explain a inhabitants) in the northern states increased rapidly after 1820.' This increase ac inied point in your paper the decrease in rural populations, as farmers who "preferred trade, transportation, or that does not quite fit in with "tinkering"" to the tasks of tending to crops and animals found great the rest of the paragraph opportunities in the city (Danhof 7). Trade and transportation thus began to influence Insert the in-text farming life significantly. Before 1820, the rural community accounted for eighty percent footnote citations directly occur after after the the quote of consumption of farmers' goods (Hurt 127). With the improvements in transportation, phrase or but before clause to the pariad, twenty-five percent of farmers' products were sold for commercial gain, and by 1825, which it The refers author's/ authors' farming "became a business rather than a way of life" (128). This business required nama/'s go before the papa farmers to specialize their production and caused most farmers to give "less attention to number with na the production of surplus commodities like wheat, tobacco, pork, or beef" (128). The comma in between. increase in specialization encouraged some farmers to turn to technology to increase their production and capitalize on commercial markets (172). The technology farmers used around 1820 was developed from three main sources: Europe, coastal Indian tribes in America, and domestic modifications made from the first two sources' technologies. Through time, technology improved, and while some farmers clung to their time-tested technologies, others were eager to find alternatives to these technologies. These farmers often turned to current developments in Great Britain and received word of their technological improvements through firsthand knowledge by Footnotes should be talking with immigrants and travelers. Farmers also began planning and conducting double spaced and in size 12 experiments, and although they lacked a truly scientific approach, these farmers engaged Times New Roman in experiments to obtain results and learn from the results." Agricultural organizations font.Angeli 4 were then formed to "encourage. . . experimentation, hear reports, observe results, and f you exchange critical comments" (Danhof 53). Thus, new knowledge was transmitted orally delate Transitions words from from farmer to farmer, immigrant to farmer, and traveler to farmer, which could result in connect the original paragraphs quote, and unify insert three the miscommunication of this new scientific knowledge. Therefore, developments were writing ellipses with a Notice how space made for knowledge to be transmitted and recorded in a more permanent, credible way: this between paragraph and after by print. ends with a each one. onof mention of pant Before 1820 and prior to the new knowledge farmers were creating, farmers who sources and the next wanted print information about agriculture had their choice of agricultural almanacs and paragraph begins with Body even local newspapers to receive information (Danhof 54). After 1820, however, discussion paragraphs of print have these informa four agricultural writing took more forms than almanacs and newspapers. From 1820 to 1870, tion. clements: a transition, a topic agricultural periodicals were responsible for spreading new knowledge among farmers. In sentence evidence, his published dissertation The American Agricultural Press 1819-1860, Albert Lowther and a brief wrap-up Demaree presents a "description of the general content of [agricultural journals]" (xi). Titles of sentence. published works Notice how These journals began in 1819 and were written for farmers, with topics devoted to (books, this journals paragraph films, etc.) begins with "farming, stock raising, [and] horticulture" (12). The suggested "birthdate" of American are now a transition. italicized The topic agricultural journalism is April 2, 1819 when John S. Skinner published his periodical instead of sentence underlined. follows the transition, American Farmer in Baltimore. Demaree writes that Skinner's periodical was the "first and it tells readers continuous, successful agricultural periodical in the United States" and "served as a what the paragraph is about model for hundreds of journals that succeeded it" (19). In the midst of the development Direct quotes are used to of the journal, farmers began writing support this topic handbooks. Not much has been written on the handbooks" history, aside from the fact that sentence. C.M. Saxton & Co. in New York was the major handbook publisher. Despite the lack of information about handbooks, and as can be seen in my discussion below, theseAngeli 5 The paragraph ends with a handbooks played a significant role in distributing knowledge among farmers and in wrap up sentence, "Despite educating young farmers, as I now discuss. the lack . while transi One result of the newly circulating print information was the "need for acquiring toning to the next scientific information upon which could be based a rational technology" that could "be paragraph. substituted for the current diverse, empirical practices" (Danhof 69). In his 1825 book Nature and Reason Harmonized in the Practice of Husbandry, John Lorain begins his first chapter by stating that "[very erroneous theories have been propagated" resulting in faulty farming methods (1). His words here create a framework for the rest of his book, as he offers his readers narratives of his own trials and errors and even dismisses foreign, time- tested techniques farmers had held on to: "The knowledge we have of that very ancient and numerous nation the Chinese, as well as the very located habits and costumes of this very singular people, is in itself insufficient to teach us..." (75). His book captures the call and need for scientific experiments to develop new knowledge meant to be used in/on/with American soil, which reflects some farmers' thinking of the day. By the 1860s, the need for this knowledge was strong enough to affect education. John Nicholson anticipated this effect in 1820 in the "Experiments" section of his book The Farmer's Assistant; Being a Digest of All That Relates to Agriculture and the Conducting of Rural Affairs; Alphabetically Arranged and Adapted for the United States: Perhaps it would be well, if some institution were devised, and supported Use block quotes at the expense of the State, which would be so organized as would tend when quotations are longer most effectually to produce a due degree of emulation among Farmers, by than four typed lines. rewards and honorary distinctions conferred by those who, by theirBlack quotes Angeli 6 begin on a new line, are double- successful experimental efforts and improvements, should render spaced, and are indented 1" themselves duly entitled to them. (92) from the margin. Do Part of Nicholson's hope was realized in 1837 when Michigan established their state not use quotation marks. The university, specifying that "agriculture was to be an integral part of the curriculum" citation information (Danhof 71). Not much was accomplished, however, much to the dissatisfaction of (author name and page farmers, and in 1855, the state authorized a new college to be "devoted to agriculture and number) follows the quote's end to be independent of the university" (Danhof 71). The government became more involved punctua tion. in the creation of agricultural universities in 1862 when President Lincoln passed the Morrill Land Grant College Act, which begins with this phrase: "AN ACT Donating Public Lands to the several States and Territories which may provide Colleges for the Benefit of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts [sic]." The first agricultural colleges formed Periods under the act suffered from a lack of trained teachers and "an insufficient base of DOCUT before the knowledge," and critics claimed that the new colleges did not meet the needs of farmers end quotation mark if the (Hurt 193). citation information is given Congress addressed these problems with the then newly formed United States already in the Department of Agriculture (USDA). The USDA and Morrill Act worked together to form sentence. State experiment stations and extension services . . . [that] added [to] -. . localized research and education . . ." (Baker et al. 415). The USDA added to the If a source scientific and educational areas of the agricultural field in other ways by including has more than three research as one of the organization's "foundation stone" (367) and by including these authors, use the First seven objectives: author's last name (1) [Clollecting, arranging, and publishing statistical and other useful followed by "et al." agricultural information; (2) introducing valuable plants and animals; (3)Angeli 7 answering inquiries of farmers regarding agnculture; (4) testing agricultural implements: (5) conducting chemical analyses of soils, grains, fruits, plants, vegetables, and manures; (6) establishing a professorship of botany and entomology: and (7) establishing an agricultural library and museum. {Baker et al. 14) These objectives were a response to farmers\" needs at the ime, mainly to the need for experiments, printed distribution of new farming knowledge, and education. Isaac Newton, the first Commissioner of Agriculture, ensured these objectives would be realized by stressing research and education with the ultimate goal of helping farmers improve their operations {Hurt 190). Before the USDA assisted in the circulation of knowledge, however, farmers wrote about their own farming methods. Thes brings me to my next section m which | examine three handbooks written by farmers and connect my observations of the texts with the discussion of agncultural history 1 have presented above. Note: Sections of this paper have been deleted to shorten the length of the paper From examining Drown's, Allen's, and Crozier and Henderson's handbooks in light of nineteenth century agncultural history, | can say that science and education seem to have had a strong influence on how and why these handbooks were written. The authors ethos is created by how they align themselves as farmers wath science and education either by supporting or by criticizing them. Regardless of their stance, the authors needed 1o create an ethos to gain an audience. and they did this by including tables of information, illustrations of animals and buildings. reasons for educational reform, and picces of Angeli 8 advice to young farmers in their texts. It would be interesting to see if other farming handbooks of the same century also convey a similar ethos concerning science and education in agriculture. Recovering more handbooks in this way could lead to a better, more complete understanding of farming education, science's role in farming and education, and perhaps even an understanding of the rhetoric of farming handbooks in the nineteenth century.Use endnotes to explain a point in Angeli 9 your paper that does not quite fit in with the rest of the paragraph. Center the title "Notes," Avoid lengthy discussions in the Notes using 12-point Times endnote entries. New Roman font. 1. Danhof includes "Delaware, Maryland, all states north of the Potomac and Endnotes begin on a new page Ohio rivers, Missouri, and states to its north" when referring to the northern states (1 1). after the paper but 2. For the purposes of this paper, "science" is defined as it was in nineteenth before the Works Cited century agriculture: conducting experiments and engaging in research. Double- space all entries, and 3. Please note that any direct quotes from the nineteenth century texts are written indent each entry 0.5* in their original form, which may contain grammar mistakes according to twenty-first from the margin. century grammar rules.The Works Cited page is a list of Angeli 10 The Works all the sources Cited page cited in your begins on a paper. Works Cited new page. Center the MLA now title "Works Allen, R.L. The American Farm Book; or Compend of American Agriculture; Being a requires all Cited" sources to without Practical Treatise on Soils, Manures, Draining, Irrigation, Grasses, Grain, have a underlining, publication bolding, or marker. For italicizing it. Roots, Fruits, Cotton, Tobacco, Sugar Cane, Rice, and Every Staple Product of example, if there is books only one the United States with the Best Methods of Planting, Cultivating, and Preparation rocaive the entry, title marker this page "Print "Work for Market. New York: Saxton, 1849. Print. after the Cited." citation. Baker, Gladys L., Wayne D. Rasmussen, Vivian Wiser, and Jane M. Porter. Century of Service: The First 100 Years of the United States Department of Agriculture. If a print [Federal Government], 1996. Print. SOURCE does not MLA no list a Danhof, Clarence H. Change in Agriculture: The Northern United States, 1820-1870. langar publisher requires and you UALs in the Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1969. Print. can infar Works who the Cited publisher is. Instead, Demaree, Albert Lowther. The American Agricultural Press 1819-1860. New York: place the publishor's you must Columbia UP, 1941. Print. name in write "Web" brackets. before the date of Drown, William and Solomon Drown. Compendium of Agriculture or the Farmer's access in the ontry This serves Guide, in the Most Essential Parts of Husbandry and Gardening; Compiled from as the entry's the Best American and European Publications, and the Unwritten Opinions of publication marker. Experienced Cultivators. Providence, RI: Field, 1824. Print. "Historical Census Browser." University of Virginia Library. 2007. Web. 6 Dec. 2008. Hurt, R. Douglas. American Agriculture: A Brief History. Ames, IA: Iowa State UP. 1994. Print. Lorain, John. Nature and Reason Harmonized in the Practice of Husbandry. Philadelphia: Carey, 1825. Print. Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862. Prairie View A&M. 2003. Web. 6 Dec. 2008