Formula (2.4.3) has alternative expression X = n(Pij - Pi+P+1)/Pi+P+j For a particular set of {pij), X2 is directly proportional to n. Hence, X can be large when n is large, regardless of whether the association is practically important. Explain why chi-squared tests, like other tests, simply indicate the degree of evidence against a hypothesis and do not give information about the strength of association. ("Like fire, the chi-square test is an excellent servant and a bad master," Sir Austin Bradford Hill, Proc. R. Soc. Med., 58: 295-300 (1965).)