Change in total cost / change in Total quantity produced / total cost. Question 16 2.5 p Large auto makers, such as General Motors, Toyota, Nissan, Volkswagen, Hyundai, Ford, and Chrysler benefit from: economies of scale, because of the efficiencies of mass production. diseconomies of scale because of the efficiencies of mass production. low implicit costs. fixed costs that are always smaller than their variable costs, because of the minimum use of physical capital. Question 17 2.5 p