Classical Approaches

The classical period extended from the mid$-19$th century through the early $1950$s$.$

The major approaches that emerged during the period were systematic management,

human relations and bureaucracy.

Systematic Management: During the $19$th century, growth in U$.$S$.$ businesses centered on

manufacturing. Early writers such as Adam Smith believed the management of these firms

was chaotic and their ideas helped to systematize it$.$ Most organizational tasks were

subdivided and performed by specialized labour. However, poor coordination caused

frequent problems and breakdowns of the manufacturing processes. The systematic

management approach attempted to build specific procedures and processes into operations

to ensure coordination of systematic management emphasized economical operations,

adequate staffing, maintenance of inventions to meet consumer demand, and organizational

control. These goals were achieved through:

$1.$ Control definition of duties and responsibilities.

$2.$ Standardized techniques for performing these duties.

$3.$ Specific means of gathering, handing, transmitting and analyzing information.

$4.$ Cost accounting, wage, and production control systems to facilitate internal

coordination communications.

Systematic management emphasized internal operation because managers were

concerned primarily with meeting the explosive growth in demand brought about the

Journal of Public Administration, Finance and Law

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industrial revolution. In addition, managers were free to focus on internal issues of

efficiency. In fact, this is because the government did not constrain business practices

significantly. Finally, labour was poorly organized. As a result, many managers were

oriented more toward things than forward people.

Systematic management did not address all the issues $19$th century managers faced,

but it tried to raise managers$$ awareness about the most pressing concern of their job.

Scientific management failed to lead to wide spread production efficiency. This is short

coming became apparent to a young engineer name Frederick Taylor, who was hired by

Miduale Steel Company in $1818.$ Taylor discovered that production and pay were poor,

inefficiency and waste were prevalent and most companies have recommended unused

potential. He concluded that management decisions were unsystematic and that no research

to determine the best means of production existed. In response, Taylor introduced approach

to management known as scientific management. This approach advocated the application

of scientific methods to analyze work and to determine how to complete production tasks

efficiently. For examples U$.$S$.$ Steels$$ contract with the United Steel worker of America

specified that sand shovels on average is pounds of river sand composed of $5\mathrm{.}5$ percent

moisture. Taylor identified four principles of scientific management:

$1.$ Management should develop a precise, scientific approach for each element of

one$$s work to replace general guidelines.

$2.$ Management should scientifically select, train, teach and develop each worker so

that the right person has the right job.

$3.$ Management should cooperate with workers to ensure that jobs match plans and

principles.

$4.$ Management should ensure an appropriate division of work and responsibility

between managers and workers.

To implement this approach, Taylor used techniques such as time$-$and$-$motion

studies. With this technique, a task was divided into its basic movement and different

motions were timed to determine the most effective way to complete the task, after the

$$one best way$$ to perform the job was identified. Taylor stressed the importance of hiring

and training the proper worker to do that job. Taylor advocated standardization of tools,

the use of instruction cards to help worker and brakes to eliminate fatigue. Another key

element in Taylor$$s approach was that of the differential piece rate system. Taylor assumed

workers were motivated by receiving money. Therefore, he implemented a pay system in

which workers were paid additional wages when they exceed a standard level of output for

each job. Taylor concluded that both workers and management would benefit from such

an approach.

Scientific management principles were widely embraced. Other proponent,

including Henry Fran and Lilian Gilbreth, introduced many refinements and technique for

applying scientific management on the factory floor. One of the most famous examples of

the application of scientific management is the Factory; Henry Ford built to produce the

model T$.$ The legacy of Taylor$$s scientific management approach is broad and pervasive;

most important, productivity and efficiency in manufacturing improve dramatically. The

concept of scientific method and research were introduced to manufacturing, the scientific

management gained wide acceptance because of its more closely aligned effort and reward.

Taylor also emphasized the need for