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1. Read Chapter 2: The Ongoing Struggle for Ethnics Studies
2. Identify at least 5 words or concepts that you learned about in this chapter.
3. Write a summary of the chapter using the 5 words or concepts you learned about (300 max).
4. Submit your work on canvas

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1. Write down your selected 5 words.

I learned about: Coloniality, Dehumanization, and Genocide Hegemony and Normalization;

2. Write your summary by defining theses selected words.

Here 300 words that centered around the 5 words.

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Here is chapter 2 Please read carefully, about the activity instructions. Instructions: 1. Read Chapter 2: The Ongoing Struggle for Ethnics Studies 2. Identify at least 5 words or concepts that you learned about in this chapter. 3. Write a summary of the chapter using the 5 words or concepts you learned about (300 max). 4. Submit your work on canvas Example: 1. Write down your selected 5 words. I learned about: Coloniality, Dehumanization, and Genocide Hegemony and Normalization; 2. Write your summary by defining theses selected words. Here 300 words that centered around the 5 words. Submit Assignment Previous Next 2.1: Introduction Introducing the Struggle for Ethnic Studies Ethnic Studies is the critical and interdisciplinary study of race, ethnicity, and Indigeneity, focusing on the experiences and perspectives of diverse Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) communities. The field of Ethnic Studies and the various disciplines like Black Studies/Africana Studies, Asian American Studies, Pacific Islander Studies, Arab American Studies, American Indian/Native American Studies, and Chicanx/Latinx and Latinx Indigenous Studies all work to center the knowledge and expertise of historically minoritized groups. Ethnic Studies has always been interdisciplinary in nature, meaning that it combines the strengths and perspectives of multiple disciplines. Scholars in the field of Ethnic Studies have also maintained a critique of the ways in which other disciplines have been associated with systems of power and domination. This has led to a critique of disciplines themselves, including the idea of a "canon" that many disciplines use to define a core set of authors, perspectives, and works that make up the foundation of the field. There is no singular beginning to Ethnic Studies or a set of scholars who wrote the field into existence. It emerged out of struggles and the long histories of communities of color and Indigenous peoples who value education for its potential to transform lives, inspire change, raise awareness, and disrupt systems of power and exploitation. In this chapter, you will learn a bit about those traditions and the way that various movements, students, and activists came together to form what we now call Ethnic Studies. This page titled 2.1: Introduction is shared under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Mario Alberto Viveros Espinoza-Kulick (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)) . 2.2: Ethnic Studies Frameworks Geohistorical Macroscales of Ethnic Studies While there is no fixed canon to Ethnic Studies, some scholars have offered frameworks that can be used to describe the scope and significance of the field. Tolteka Cuahutin (2019) offers us the idea of four geohistorical macroscales of Ethnic Studies: 1. Indigeneity and Active Roots 2. Coloniality, Dehumanization, and Genocide 3. Hegemony and Normalization; and 4. Decoloniality, Regeneration, and Transformational Resistance. Indigeneity and Active Roots mean beginning with and centering the sovereignty and self-determination of Indigenous peoples. It also means providing students and educators with the tools to critically understand the relationships we have as people in this world with our ancestors, the land, and the historical realities that come to bear on our lives. Second, coloniality, dehumanization, and genocide is the first component of actively recognizing those historical and current-day political realities. In Figure , the image shows an activist sign with the phrase, "No History, No Self" written in red and black. This sign was used at a protest in support of students on a hunger strike for Ethnic Studies at San Francisco State University in 2016. The message emphasizes the way that Ethnic Studies as a discipline benefits students by connecting to the true and authentic histories of race, Indigeneity, and culture. An activist holding a sign that says, "No History No Self" Figure : Ethnic Studies Hunger Strike at San Francisco State. (CC BY 2.0; Melissa Minton via Wikimedia) Ethnic Studies is critical because it opens the door to recognizing and understanding these aspects of society and culture that are often diminished or hidden. This brings us to the third geohistorical macroscale of Ethnic Studies, which is hegemony and normalization. Hegemony refers to the systems by which violence and exploitation are maintained in regular patterns to advantage socially dominant groups and maintain the oppression of Black, Indigenous, people of color communities, including women and non-binary people, as well as people of diverse faiths, abilities, and immigration statuses. Finally, Ethnic Studies goes beyond revealing and examining violence and pain to bring students and education into the work of transformation, resistance, and social change. This means that Ethnic Studies is always political, always evolving, and intimately connected to social movements, grassroots activism, and advocacy for change. This page titled 2.2: Ethnic Studies Frameworks is shared under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Mario Alberto Viveros Espinoza-Kulick (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)) . 2.3: Historical Roots of Ethnic Studies Native and Indigenous Pedagogies Native and Indigenous peoples of Turtle Island (a name for North and Central America used by various Indigenous peoples of the western hemisphere) have practiced educational pedagogies that center resistance, justice, and equity long before the introduction of Ethnic Studies as a phrase or academic field. Traditional knowledge that has been sustained and carried forward in the face of settler-colonialism provides key insight into the importance of activism and strategies of resistance against oppressive systems (Jacob et al., 2018). Native and Indigenous Pedagogies are as diverse as the peoples who practice them, however, there are some common values and tools that have contributed to current-day Ethnic Studies. Native and Indigenous pedagogies are place-based and incorporate the cultural, historical, environmental, economic, and literary context of students (Johnson, 2012). This means learning with and from the local context, highlighting the importance of contributing directly to local communities through educational projects, and emphasizes reciprocity and relationality. Traditions of Education and Resistance The introduction of colonial educational and epistemological frameworks led to the attempted erasure and genocide of Indigenous lifeways. Building on centuries of colonization, in 1869 the U.S. government and Christian churches began systematically kidnapping Native American children and trafficking students into government and church-run Boarding Schools, which were designed to forcefully strip students of their Native American heritage and impose the use of English, Christian religious customs, and colonized modes of dress. These norms enforced colonial gender binaries, conditioning girls to do housework with boys focused on outside labor. Speaking Native languages and practicing religious or familial customs were violently punished in these Boarding Schools (Lomawaima 2018). This is just one example of instances where educational institutions have functioned to support systems of violence, exploitation, and forced assimilation. The roots of current-day Ethnic Studies are also present in the ongoing resistance to oppressive educational systems. Throughout the 19th and 20th Centuries, the United States greatly expanded the role of public education. This infrastructure was built up unequally, with schools actively segregated by race. The separation of students by race helped to reinforce the existing racial hierarchy. This also has major implications for the wealth disparities between racial and ethnic groups. For a more in-depth exploration of this topic, please review Chapter 9: The Racial Wealth Gap. Challenges to Legal Segregation In 1884, Mary and Joseph Tape, a Chinese American couple living in San Francisco, California, sought to enroll their daughter to the primary school in their neighborhood, which was an all-white school. The administration blocked their enrollment, and the Tapes sued. Their case made it to the California Supreme Court, who in 1885 affirmed that public schools must be open to all children. California legislators and federal policy moved quickly to affirm segregation, which would remain the law of the land for nearly another 70 years. The San Francisco School Board created a separate Chinese primary school in Chinatown. However, the racial status quo was not without challenge. In the 1947 case Mendez v. Westminster, Sylvia Mendez and her family brought a federal case against the Westminster School District of Orange County, California, to challenge the exclusion of Mexican American students from white schools. While Mexican Americans were considered legally white, they were excluded on the basis of Spanish- speaking children. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit affirmed in their decision that equality in education means opening schools to all children, in defiance of the presiding "separate but equal" doctrine. In Figure , there is a video that describes in more detail the story of Mendez vs. Westminster and its significance in addressing discrimination in California. The video is nine minutes and 45 seconds. It was not until the U.S. Supreme Court decided in 1954 in the Brown v. Board of Education case that racial segregation in public schools was outlawed nationwide. In this case, Linda Brown's family sued the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, because their daughter was denied entrance to their local school because of her race. This landmark decision invalidated the idea that separate facilities, services, and institutions based on race can be equal and affirmed that segregation itself is a form of racial discrimination. The Court instructed segregated schools across the country to implement desegregation "with all deliberate speed." However, white supremacist groups emerged to resist these changes, including in Little Rock, Arkansas. Despite vocal and public bigotry and hatred directed at them, nine Black students registered to attend the formerly all-white Central High School: Minnijean Brown, Elizabeth Eckford, Ernest Green, Thelma Mothershed, Melba Patillo, Gloria Ray, Terrence Roberts, Jefferson Thomas, and Carlotta Walls. With support from the Arkansas NAACP, this group, the "Little Rock Nine," courageously faced racial violence and adult protestors who attempted to prevent them from going to school. The Governor of Arkansas called in the Arkansas National Guard to prevent students from entering the campus, which eventually prompted President Eisenhower to send National Guard troops to escort the students to school. In Figure , Elizabeth Eckford is shown walking to school in sunglasses, while she is surrounded by an angry white mob, with Hazel Bryan Massery behind her, shouting hateful comments. A white teenager shouts at one of the Little Rock Nine Figure : Elizabeth Eckford being verbally assaulted by Hazel Bryan Massery for exercising her right to pursue an education. (Public Domain; Will Counts via Wikimedia Commons) Generations of students and activists have had to fight for the rights of Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) communities to receive an education at all. Beyond this struggle, the schools and instructional methods that were created by and for white people to maintain white supremacist culture and class superiority are not designed to support BIPOC students. While advocates have worked to open access to these spaces and transform them to better serve the needs of all students, others have focused on creating alternative educational spaces that directly serve the needs of students through culturally and politically relevant pedagogy. This sentiment is captured in the phrase, "Education Justice is Racial Justice," which is represented through an artistic poster of an activist and social movement in Figure . page2image60585472.png page2image58430336.png page2image58430544.png 3.3.2 2.3.2 2.3.2 1.3.2 page3image58426800.png page3image58429088.jpeg Figure : Education Justice is Racial Justice. (CC BY-NC-ND 3.0; Favianna Rodriguez via Justseeds) Formation of Autonomous Schools The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) began organizing Freedom Schools in 1963. Civil rights leaders like Fannie Lou Hamer, Bob Moses, and Stokely Carmichael had begun organizing voter education initiatives to offer vital education to Black communities. SNCC sought to expand these efforts and work against the pervasive educational disadvantages faced by Black communities in the Jim Crow South. The Freedom Schools provided students of all ages with an opportunity to learn vital information about history, mathematics, culture, and other topics. This offered personal benefits to the participants while also encouraging folx to join a movement of engaged and politically motivated community members. This is just one example of BIPOC communities creating autonomous learning environments that promote cultural pride, relevant knowledge, and preserve shared languages. Historically Black Colleges and Universities have been major leaders in this area. You can learn more about these institutions in Chapter 9, section 9.5: "Counternarratives in Racial Wealth Disparities." As well, the native Hawaiian community have been leaders, especially in language preservation, with the Kamehameha Schools opening in 1887 to defend Native traditions and preserve culture for the next generation. This page titled 2.3: Historical Roots of Ethnic Studies is shared under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Mario Alberto Viveros Espinoza-Kulick (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)) . 2.4: The Beginning of Ethnic Studies Early Days of Ethnic Studies Throughout the 1960s, colleges and universities were the sites of student-led protests for racial justice, environmental justice, gender liberation, and in opposition to the war in Vietnam. Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale met at Merritt College in Oakland, California, where they were inspired by the writings of the Black radical author, Franz Fanon. A sign on the Merritt College campus is shown in Figure . They began a student group called Soul Students Advisory Council and advocated for the first Black Studies program, before going on to found the Black Panther Party (Rojas, 2010). At the same time, similar efforts were underway throughout California and across the country. The Black Student Union at San Francisco State College (SFSC) was started in 1963 by activists who had trained with the Black Panther Party and SNCC (Rojas, 2010). The organization supported the small minority of Black students at SFSC at the time and sought to increase enrollment. In 1966, Jimmy Garret from SNCC arrived on campus to mobilize and organize Black students (Rojas, 2010). Figure : Merritt College. (CC BY 4.0; Photo by Jordan Burkart) At SFSC, the administration allowed students to teach each other courses not included in the traditional curriculum through the Experimental College. Students resisted any attempt to control the content of these courses, including invited speakers. The culture and operations of the Experimental College attracted radicalized Black students. Students, especially leaders in the Black Student Union, used the Experimental College to build the Black Studies curriculum. By 1968, the Black Studies curriculum covered history, social sciences, and the humanities, including courses like: Sociology of Black Oppression, American Institutions, Culture in Cities, Composition, Modern African Thought and Literature, Recurrent Themes in Twentieth Century Afroamericano Thought, Creative Writing, Avant-Garde Jazz, Play Writing, and Black Improvisation. The Longest Student Strike George Murray was a beloved English instructor at SFSC, who was known for his vocal critiques of racism and the Vietnam War. He also served as the Minister of Education for the Black Panther Party. After he was fired on November 1, 1968, student leaders from the BSU and Third World Liberation Front (TWLF) started a strike. The TWLF was a multi-ethnic coalition of students that were awoken to the fact that they were being taught in ways that were dominating and irrelevant to themselves (Maeda, 2012), and included a a coalition of the Black Student Union (BSU), Latin American Student Organization (LASO), Intercollegiate Chinese for Social Action (ICSA), Mexican American Student Confederation, Philippine (now Pilipino) American Collegiate Endeavor (PACE), La Raza, Native American Students Union, and Asian American Political Alliance. These movements built on intergenerational traditions of protest and advocacy that informed the emergent groups that formed, established, and nurtured Ethnic Studies (Delgado, 2016). Penny Nakatsu was one of the strike's leaders, and her speeches emphasized the importance of connecting student oppression with U.S. Imperialism and Militarism that creates adverse conditions throughout Third World countries. Nesbit Crutchfield was also a prominent leader in the organization and the first striker to be arrested. He spent over a year in jail. Police officers used militarized tactics on strikers, including directly assaulting students. The College's President at the beginning of the strike, Robert Smith, was initially sympathetic to students and interested in hearing out their demands. However, the administration quickly replaced President Smith with Samuel Ichiye Hayakawa, who represented the interests of the predominantly page1image60396800.png page1image60392000.png 2. 4. 1 ht t ps ://s ocials ci.libret ext s .org/@go/page/143283 1.4.2 1.4.2 page2image58550224.png white California State College Board of Trustees, along with then California Governor, Ronald Raegan. The TWLF made a conscious choice in their organizing to center the leadership of students of color. However, the strike also garnered support from white students and community members, as well as the faculty union, a local chapter of the American Federation of Teachers. The strike lasted for nearly five months, and at its peak, had halted nearly all classes and college operations. Although the protestors were met with hostility, resistance, arrests, and violence, they countered this with a strategy called the "War of the Flea," which focused on disruptive tactics that would pressure the administration to take action. For example, protestors checked out massive amounts of books from the library, disrupted classes to encourage students to join the strikes, and staged massive public demonstrations with music and chanting (Rojas, 2010). Outcomes of the Strike In the end, the strikers won nearly all of their demands, including the creation of a Black Studies Department, the funding of 11.3 new full-time equivalent faculty positions, a new Associate Director of Financial Aid, the creation of an Economic Opportunity Program (EOP) with 108 students admitted for Spring 1969 in this program, as well as 500 seats committed for non-white students in the Fall of 1969 with 400 additional slots for EOP students, and a commitment to create the School of Ethnic Studies (Rojas, 2010). The School of Ethnic Studies later became San Francisco State University's College of Ethnic Studies, which includes Africana Studies, American Indian Studies, Asian American Studies, Latina/Latino Studies, and Race and Resistance Studies. The strikers' unmet demands included that Dr. Nathan Hare and George Murray were both denied faculty employment in the newly formed Black Studies program. Despite these losses, to this day, the strike remains the longest student strike in U.S. history and is a testament to the power of student mobilization (Delgado, 2016; Maeda, 2012; Rojas, 2010). Sidebar: San Francisco State College Strike Demands Black Student Union Demands That all Black Studies courses being taught through various departments be immediately part of the Black Studies Department and that all the instructors in this department receive full-time pay. That Dr. Hare, Chairman of the Black Studies Department, receive a full-professorship and a comparable salary according to his qualifications. That there be a Department of Black Studies which will grant a Bachelor's Degree in Black Studies; that the Black Studies Department chairman, faculty and staff have the sole power to hire faculty and control and determine the destiny of its department. That all unused slots for Black Students from Fall 1968 under the Special Admissions program be filled in Spring 1969. That all Black students wishing so, be admitted in Fall 1969. That twenty (20) full-time teaching positions be allocated to the Department of Black Studies. That Dr. Helen Bedesem be replaced from the position of Financial Aid Officer and that a Black person be hired to direct it; that Third World people have the power to determine how it will be administered. That no disciplinary action will be administered in any way to any students, workers, teachers, or administrators during and after the strike as a consequence of their participation in the strike. That the California State College Trustees not be allowed to dissolve any Black programs on or off the San Francisco State College campus. That George Murray maintain his teaching position on campus for the 1968-69 academic year. Third World Liberation Front Demands That a School of Ethnic Studies for the ethnic groups involved in the Third World be set up with the students in each particular ethnic organization having the authority and control of the hiring and retention of any faculty member, director, or administrator, as well as the curriculum in a specific area study. That 50 faculty positions be appropriated to the School of Ethnic Studies, 20 of which would be for the Black Studies program. That, in the Spring semester, the College fulfill its commitment to the non-white students in admitting those who apply. That, in the fall of 1969, all applications of non-white students be accepted. That George Murray and any other faculty person chosen by non-white people as their teacher be retained in their positions. The tenacity of the strikers inspired students at the University of California, Berkeley (UCB) to form their own Third World Liberation Front in January 1969, who began a separate strike for Ethnic Studies at UCB (Delgado, 2016). Strikers called for a page2image60438016.png 2. 4. 2 ht t ps ://s ocials ci.libret ext s .org/@go/page/143283 page3image58433664.png Third World College, but the administration ultimately formed a Department of Ethnic Studies. Throughout the country, racial justice and student activism were front and center, leading to a cascade of activism for Ethnic Studies programs, including the core disciplines of Black Studies, Chicano Studies, Asian American Studies, and American Indian Studies. In 1969, Chicana/o/x activists came together at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) and published El Plan de Santa Barbara, a document that united diverse activists from around the state of California and laid out a roadmap for Chicana/Chicano Studies, as well as programs to increase the retention, engagement and success of students from minoritized backgrounds (see Chapter 6, section 6.2: "Roots and Resistance- The Development of Chicanx and Latinx Studies"). UCSB created the first Chicano Studies department in the University of California in 1970, now Chicana and Chicano Studies; and eventually formed the first PhD program in the field in 2003. California State University, Los Angeles was also a forerunner in this area, and established a Mexican American Studies program, which became the Department of Chicano Studies in 1971, and is now called the Department of Chicana(o) and Latina(o) Studies. This page titled 2.4: The Beginning of Ethnic Studies is shared under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Mario Alberto Viveros Espinoza-Kulick (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)) . 2.5: Growth and Expansion of Ethnic Studies Ethnic Studies as a Site of Growth In the over fifty years since the founding of Ethnic Studies as an academic field, it has grown substantially to include a range of scholarly associations, degree-granting programs at all levels of higher education, growth in the K-12 education system, inclusion within general education curricula, and as a site of struggle and solidarity for racial justice, decolonization, and intersectionality. Subsequent generations of students and scholars have added to the field of Ethnic Studies and expanded its potential for liberatory praxis. As an interdisciplinary field committed to a relevant education, Ethnic Studies has always been a dynamic project that can change and grow. Scholarly Associations and Degree Programs Scholarly associations are voluntary organizations of professional researchers who organize the exchange of ideas through activities like conferences where scholars present and share their work, newsletters, peer-reviewed publications, scholarships, and research grants. Within Ethnic Studies fields, many scholarly organizations exist, which focus on specific disciplines and populations of scholars. Some of these predate the 1968 protests for Ethnic Studies, like the Association for the Study of African American Life and History founded in 1915, which is the group responsible for Black History Month. The Association for Ethnic Studies formed in 1972, just four years after the San Francisco State College strike began. The National Association for Chicano Social Scientists first began in 1972, and later became the National Association for Chicano Studies in 1973, and changed to the National Association for Chicana and Chicano Studies in 1995, which remains the name today. However, a single association is often not enough to reflect the diversity and complexity of an academic field. For example, Mujeres Activas en Letras y Cambio Social was founded in 1982 focusing on Chicana/Latina scholarship separately from what was known as the National Association for Chicano Studies at the time. With respect to the other core disciplines of Ethnic Studies, the National Council for Black Studies began in 1975 to help provide a structure to the growing fields of Africana/Black Studies, bringing together scholars of the African diaspora studying various aspects of the global experience of Blackness. In 1979, the Association for Asian American Studies formed to organize this discipline. The American Indian Studies Association formed in 1999 to develop the fields of American Indian, Alaskan Native, and Indigenous Studies. As well, the Native American and Indigenous Studies Association formed in 2007 and publishes the journal, Native American and Indigenous Studies with the University of Minnesota Press. Academic associations typically encourage student participation and have specific opportunities and scholarships available to students in that field. There are also associations within other disciplines that utilize a racial justice or decolonial lens, such as the Association of Black Sociologists, the Black Women's Studies Association, and the Association of Indigenous Anthropologists. There are a range of degree programs that are offered in Ethnic Studies fields, reflecting the complexity and depth of experiences among people of color and Indigenous peoples in the United States and around the world. Ethnic Studies programs are united in their shared focus on power and domination and a connection to real world struggles for justice and equity. This is distinguished between traditional fields of regional studies, cultural studies, and American Studies. For example, researchers who study African cultures, traditions, history, and science may offer a program in African Studies, or a degree specific to a region or country on the continent. These programs are distinct from a Black Studies program or Africana Studies program, which focuses on the self- determination and struggles of Black communities in the U.S. or in a transnational context. Ethnic Studies programs may offer degrees in Comparative Ethnic Studies, which addresses multiple historically defined racialized groups, or with a specific concentration in disciplines like Black Studies, African American Studies, Africana Studies, Native American Studies, Indigenous Studies, American Indian Studies, Chicanx and Latinx Studies, Asian American Studies, Critical Pacific Islands & Oceania Studies, Arab and Muslim Ethnicities and Diasporas, and Critical Middle East/Southwest and North Africa Studies. Institutional Growth and Policies While Ethnic Studies has grown as an academic discipline, it has always maintained its connection to community collaborations and ensuring that scholarship and education are useful to communities affected by historical violence, settler-colonialism, and systems of exploitation. Student activists are a key force in Ethnic Studies, and groups like BSU (Black Student Union) and MEChA (Movimiento Estudiantil Chicanx de Aztlan or the Chicanx Student Movement of Aztlan) build student leadership, advocate for equity and policy change, and develop relationships with historically underserved communities in higher education. Students have also been a major part of advancing Ethnic Studies programs and speaking out when they face budget cuts and page1image57624064.png page1image57624256.png 2. 5. 1 ht t ps ://s ocials ci.libret ext s .org/@go/page/143284 page2image58276896.png administrative threats. For instance, in 1999, the Third World Liberation Front at UCB emerged once more and organized hunger strikes to protest the proposed cuts to both funding and faculty support for the Ethnic Studies department. The movement also included rallies, sit-ins, and building occupations, and managed to stop the cuts to the department and generated an administrative commitment to establishing a research center that was eventually called the Center for Race & Gender. In 2016, the TWLF emerged again, this time at San Francisco State University, also staging hunger strikes as part of a strategy to pressure administration into making investments into the College of Ethnic Studies. The College faced a nearly $250,000 deficit in funding, with the University failing to provide adequate financial resources to cover the salaries of all faculty and permanent staff. The student demonstrations, including a 10-day hunger strike and camping overnight on campus grounds, led to university administrators committing a total of over $650,000 to both address the shortfall and expand the faculty for teaching high-quality and innovative Ethnic Studies courses. Ethnic Studies classes are a great opportunity for students to deepen their knowledge and passion of these topics. Educators have also shown that these classes have general benefits for all students, as well as campus communities as a whole (Bonilla, Dee, and Penner 2021). This has led faculty advocates and administrators to establish Ethnic Studies as a general education graduation requirement. In 2020, the California state legislature passed Assembly Bill 1460 (authored by Assemblymember Shirley Weber), which changed the general education curriculum to include Ethnic Studies as a graduation requirement for all 23 campuses in the California State University (CSU) system. The CSUs enroll nearly half a million students (485,550 in 2022) and are the largest public research university system in the world. The legislative directive in AB 1460 made it so that all students must take an Ethnic Studies class taught in an Ethnic Studies department, separate from any related diversity or multiculturalism requirements. This acknowledged the status of Ethnic Studies as a distinct field of scholarship. The California Community Colleges followed suit by establishing Ethnic Studies as a graduation requirement, while the University of California system Academic Council is considering both an Ethnic Studies graduation requirement and admission requirement for high school students hoping to attend the UC. Ethnic Studies curriculum has a long history in the K-12 educational context as well. In 1970, the Native American Materials Development Center created a K-6 curriculum for Navajo children that included both historical content and culturally relevant pedagogies. As early as 1993, the Berkeley Unified School District created a 9th grade course in Ethnic Studies and made it a graduation requirement. In 2007, Kailu High School in Hawai'i established Ethnic Studies as a required 9th-grade course for all students. In 2014, El Rancho Unified in Pico Rivera, CA created a high school requirement for Ethnic Studies. The Ethnic Studies Now Coalition helped to spread the successes of Ethnic Studies to other communities, including through advocacy as well as sharing resources. With more and more districts adopting Ethnic Studies, statewide advocates in California moved to formalize the curriculum and establish a framework for Ethnic Studies teachers. Campus programs like the UCLA Center X / Teacher Education Program, Exito at UCSB, and XITO (Xicanx Institute for Teaching and Organizing) have started to train educators interested in working in this growing field. Threats Against Ethnic Studies While Ethnic Studies scholarship and curriculum has seen substantial growth over 50 years, this has always been threatened by counter-movements and institutional resistance. In 1998 in Tucson, Arizona, the school district established a Mexican American Studies program that grew to 48 course offerings and was the largest Ethnic Studies program in any school district nationwide. The department offered student support and facilitated teachers' and parents' involvement in Chicana/o/x and Latina/o/x student success, which directly increased graduation rates and grades in all classes (Cabrera, Milem, and Marx 2012). In 2010, state lawmakers passed Arizona House Bill 2281, which dismantled the program. The ban was overturned in 2017, as it was deemed racist and unconstitutional. The rhetoric from this law, which claimed to restrict teachers from promoting "resentment toward a race or class of people" or advocating "ethnic solidarity instead of the treatment of pupils as individuals," re-emerged in 2021 as conservative activists passed statewide bans on Critical Race Theory to intimidate K-12 educators working to have discussions about race and ethnicity in their classrooms. Despite this political hostility and counter-mobilization, Ethnic Studies educators and others invested in student equity and success continue to work at the front lines to inspire students and ensure that the next generation has access to a relevant education. As California has continued to formalize and institutionalize Ethnic Studies, scholars and activists have contended over the boundaries of the field and its purpose for higher education and society. In 2021, California Governor Gavin Newsom signed Assembly Bill 101 (authored by Assemblymember Jose Medina), which established that all high school districts will be required to offer Ethnic Studies by the 2025-2026 school year and require an Ethnic Studies course for graduation by 2029-2030. Prior to establishing an Ethnic Studies requirement, the state Department of Education adopted an Ethnic Studies Model Curriculum in page2image59893696.png 2. 5. 2 ht t ps ://s ocials ci.libret ext s .org/@go/page/143284 page3image58283088.png March of 2021. The first draft of the Model Curriculum included lessons on the occupation of Palestine and its connection to Third World solidarity movements in the United States. However, the final draft removed this content and emphasized General Ethnic Studies, along with the four core disciplines centered on historically defined racial groups: African American Studies, Chicana/o/x and Latina/o/x Studies, Asian American and Pacific Islander Studies, and Native American Studies, along with sample lessons on Jewish Americans and Arab Americans. The Liberated Ethnic Studies Model Curriculum was created by independent scholars as a guide for K-12 educators that also includes Arab American Studies, along with Intersectional and Comparative Ethnic Studies. This group of educators is working to ensure that diverse perspectives within Ethnic Studies are continuously cultivated and represented. Sidebar: Contention over the California Ethnic Studies Model Curriculum In 2019, the California Ethnic Studies Model Curriculum Advisory Committee convened at the California Department of Education in Sacramento. The convening began with a land acknowledgment, showing a commitment to Indigenous peoples. And, the first draft of the high school curriculum incorporated the attempted genocide and resistance of California Natives. In its first version, the model curriculum had a lesson about land acknowledgment as well as protection of sacred sites, but they were removed. By 2022 when the final version was published, the Indigenous (Mayan) inspired poem, In Lak'Ech, was removed from the approved Ethnic Studies Model Curriculum for high schools. This page titled 2.5: Growth and Expansion of Ethnic Studies is shared under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Mario Alberto Viveros Espinoza-Kulick (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)) . 2.6: Summary/Review Conclusion In summary, the field of Ethnic Studies is a dynamic source of inquiry and action. As we have explored its history, we can see that it joins many roots of resistance with a commitment to a relevant education. It is also particular to the racialized history of higher education in the United States and the resistance and liberation movements of the 1960s. While activist movements respond to the emerging needs brought about in the larger political environment, each generation has invested in Ethnic Studies as a source of education, research, and sharing knowledge to inspire further liberation and pursuits of justice. The need for Ethnic Studies is apparent when considering the long history of educational institutions in reproducing systemic oppression, including violence at the hands of educational institutions as well as exclusion from high-quality schools. Fortunately, Ethnic Studies has been shown time and time again to help improve disparities in school achievement and contribute to a more positive, inclusive school culture. Further, while Ethnic Studies was developed as the educational arm of broader struggles of decolonization and racial justice, it has also taken on its own life through the students and educators who carry out creative pedagogies and put knowledge into action. This has also led to the field becoming a target for politicization by outside commentators and stakeholders who consciously organize misinformation campaigns using the media and local activist networks. In the face of many misconceptions about Ethnic Studies, students and educators alike benefit from the knowledge and approach of Ethnic Studies scholarship. The future of the field depends entirely on today's students, who will come to shape the direction of the social movements that are central to the unfolding discipline and become the next generation of scholars to build innovative solutions to persistent systems of injustice in our society. Key Terms Geohistorical Macroscales of Ethnic Studies: A perspective put forward by Tolteka Cuahutin to describe the dynamic principles that guide Ethnic Studies scholarship in terms of scope and approach: Indigeneity and Active Roots, Coloniality, Dehumanization, and Genocide, Hegemony and Normalization; and, Decoloniality, Regeneration, and Transformational Resistance. Coloniality, Dehumanization, and Genocide: Systems of oppression that are carried out through political, cultural, and militarized means, leading to the assault on Native and Indigenous lifeways. Hegemony: Systems by which violence and exploitation are maintained in regular patterns to advantage socially dominant groups and maintain the oppression of Black, Indigenous, and people of color communities, including women and non-binary people, as well as people of diverse faiths, abilities, and immigration statuses. Decoloniality, Regeneration, and Transformational Resistance: Going beyond revealing and examining violence and pain to bring students and education into the work of transformation, resistance, and social change. Native and Indigenous Pedagogies: Diverse perspectives in tribal communities that are commonly place-based and incorporate the cultural, historical, environmental, economic, and literary context of local Indigenous realities. Colonial Education: Settler institutions that have attempted erasure and genocide of Indigenous lifeways, including the government and Church-run Boarding Schools in the United States and Canada. Third World Liberation Front (TWLF): A multi-ethnic coalition of students that were awoken to the fact that they were being taught in ways that were dominating and irrelevant to themselves (Maeda, 2012), and included a coalition of the Black Student Union (BSU), Latin American Student Organization (LASO), Intercollegiate Chinese for Social Action (ICSA), Mexican American Student Confederation, Philippine (now Pilipino) American Collegiate Endeavor (PACE), La Raza, Native American Students Union, and Asian American Political Alliance General Education Graduation Requirement: A type of course that all students are required to take as part of their degree. In California, Ethnic Studies has become a general education graduation requirement in all public high schools and colleges. Critical Race Theory: A legal perspective put forward by scholars to identify the link between U.S. laws and the structure of racism, with the goal of better ending racial discrimination and disparities. This perspective has been misrepresented by conservative activists. page1image60519936.png page1image60518784.png 2. 6. 1 ht t ps ://s ocials ci.libret ext s .org/@go/page/143285 page2image58483024.png Discussion Questions Review some of the demands from the Third World Liberation Front in Section 2.4. Do any of these resonate with your experience on our own campus? What demands would you make of your administration? How would you modify or update these demands for your own context? Ethnic Studies as a field has grown in tandem with the constituent disciplines. What are the advantages of focusing on specific community formations, such as in Black Studies, Chicanx and Latinx Studies, Native American and Indigenous Studies, Arab American Studies, or Asian American and Pacific Islander Studies? What are the advantages of a comparative Ethnic Studies perspective? The Mendez vs. Westminster case showcased the status quo perspective of segregation in public education at that time. What are some of the current perspectives that support segregation and inequity in education? How would you respond to those ideas now, given what you have learned in this chapter? Journal Prompts The field of Ethnic Studies is deeply rooted in activist traditions. This has included linking the work happening in classrooms and through education to the diverse struggles of Black, Indigenous, and People of Color groups. Reflecting on the students, families, and individuals that you learned about in this chapter, what are some strategies that lead to social change? Consider how these strategies relate to your own life or the things you have witnessed around you. For a more focused exercise, consider directing the prompt to a specific activist group. For example, you may want to focus on the San Francisco State College Strikes for Ethnic Studies in 1968-1969. You can access more primary documents and digital recordings from the Strike from the SFSU Diva Archive and SF State College Strike Collection at the SFSU Library. To see the full Black Studies Curriculum from Spring 1968, you can visit the SFSU Digital Collections. Educational institutions can promote freedom, self-determination, and justice, but they have also been places of elite domination, white supremacy, and settler-colonialism. Considering the schools you attended and where you have lived, what patterns have you witnessed? You may want to focus on examples of barriers and exclusion, positive work for inclusion and equity, or both. Be sure to verify assumptions about the demographics of a school or neighborhood. For colleges and universities, you can find racial demographic information on websites like College Factual or by searching your school's website. You can look up information about demographics in a specific place by using the US Census website. Class Activities Role Play Discussion: Strategizing for Social Change For this activity, you will divide the class into three groups. Each group will represent a different constituency in the strike for Ethnic Studies at San Francisco State College: the Third World Liberation Front, the faculty union, and the anti-war groups who supported the strike. In these groups, the class will address a series of scenarios that mirror the experiences of the strikers and the college. Students should situate their responses to the circumstance based on their understanding of the text and historical examples referenced in the chapter and course material. Consider priorities, tactics, and context. Example Scenario: A local newspaper ran coverage of a demonstration where a number of strikers were arrested. In the description of the events, they negatively characterized the students that were arrested and consistently called the strikers violent. Another demonstration is planned for the next day, and many student activists want to respond to the newspaper directly. Others have suggested focusing on focusing the demonstration on more peaceful tactics to avoid arrests and being called violent again. Your three groups are tasked with how to move everyone forward. What options would you consider? How would you decide who will do what? Take into account that there is limited time to communicate messages to your supporters. The instructor may adapt to emergent conditions based on what the groups decide to do. For example, this might include introducing external factors like additional repressive responses, political pressure, or resistance from other stakeholders. Suggested Format: Provide the instructions, divide everyone into groups, and review the scenario with everyone. Answer any questions that come up in the full group. page2image60531904.png 2. 6. 2 ht t ps ://s ocials ci.libret ext s .org/@go/page/143285 page3image58265872.png Give each group a few minutes to discuss amongst themselves how they want to represent their interests in the discussion. Each group should also identify one or more people who will represent their group in the larger discussions. Others may contribute as well, but this will help to facilitate a flowing conversation. Return the large group, review the scenario once more, and provide each group an opportunity to provide their initial remarks. Facilitate discussion among the groups to achieve a dynamic and unified response to the outlined scenario. This would be well suited for a face-to-face modality or a synchronous online discussion using video chat technology and breakout rooms (e.g., Zoom). You could also adapt this to be a guided discussion board or multi-part online discussion in groups. Ethnic Studies is... Each student will provide a creative response to the prompt, "Ethnic Studies is..." that is rooted in what you have learned from this chapter and the class. The response should be brief, about one sentence, and may highlight a definition of Ethnic Studies, or what Ethnic Studies means to that individual. This could take on different formats for different learners and styles. For example, using an Online Discussion board in an online course, students could post their short replies to the prompt and have an opportunity to view one another's. You can also have students provide their brief reply with a video recording or by completing a template image. Based on the format option(s) that individuals can submit, the group's collective responses should be compiled and made available for discussion. This page titled 2.6: Summary/Review is shared under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Mario Alberto Viveros Espinoza-Kulick (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)) . 2.7: References References Bonilla, S., Dee, T. S., & Penner, E. K. (2021). Ethnic studies increases longer-run academic engagement and attainment. PNAS, 118(37), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2026386118 Cabrera, N. P., Milem, J. F., & Marx, R. W. (2012). An Empirical Analysis of the Effects of Mexican American Studies Participation on Student Achievement within Tucson Unified School District. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona College of Education. https://old.coe.arizona.edu/sites/default/files/MAS_report_2012_0.pdf Cuahuhtin, R. T. (2019). The Ethnic Studies framework: A holistic overview. In R. T. Cuahuhtin, M. Zavala, C. Sleeter, & W. Au (Eds.), Rethinking Ethnic Studies (pp. 65-79). Milwaukee, WI: Rethinking Schools. Delgado, Z. J. (2016). The Longue Duree of Ethnic Studies: Race, Education and the Struggle for Self-Determination [PhD Dissertation in Ethnic Studies, UC Berkeley]. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/84n3f8kh Jacob, M. M., Sabzalian, L., Jansen, J., Tobin, T. J., Vincent, C. G., & LaChance, K. M. (2018). The gift of education: How Indigenous knowledges can transform the future of public education. International Journal of Multicultural Education, 20(1), 157- 185. https://doi.org/10.18251/ijme.v20i1.1534 Johnson, J. T. (2012). Place-based learning and knowing: Critical pedagogies grounded in Indigeneity. GeoJournal, 77(6), 829- 836. Lomawaima, K. T. (2018). Indian Boarding Schools, before and after: A personal introduction. Journal of American Indian Education, 57(1), 11-21. https://doi.org/10.5749/jamerindieduc.57.1.0011 Maeda, D. (2011). Rethinking the Asian American Movement. New York, NY: Routledge. Rojas, F. (2010). From Black Power to Black Studies: How a Radical Social Movement Became an Academic Discipline. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. This page titled 2.7: References is shared under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Mario Alberto Viveros Espinoza-Kulick (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI))