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Individualism and collectivism in Pakistan

Individualism refers to the degree to which people in a country have learned to act as individuals rather than as members of cohesive groups like family, kinship or lineage groups. This dimension concerns the degree of horizontal dependence of individuals upon the group. According to Hofstede, individualism pertains to societies in which the ties between individuals are loose. Everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. Collectivism as its opposite pertains to societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which throughout people's lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. The workplace in highly individualistic cultures is largely contractual or transactional and work is controlled and organized with reference to individuals and assumed economic rationale and self-interest. Collectivist cultures emphasize dependence upon the organization in providing training, good physical conditions and enabling the full use of skills. In collectivist societies, the employment relationship is morally based and management of groups is salient with personal relationships prevailing over the task. Trust is the essential requirement for successful cooperation. In these countries, it is important for the organization to establish linkages between private and work life. It appears that managers in collectivist societies should exhibit a high degree of concern for employee welfare (see Table 2). Pakistan scored very low on individualism and conversely very high on collectivism in Hofstedes study along with many countries of Central and South America Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Columbia and Venezuela. Pakistan remains essentially a collectivist country. Out of the 52 countries compared by Hofstede, Pakistan ranked 38th on individualism, the USA is the most individualistic with a score of 91 and Guatemala the least with a score of 6. Pakistans score of 14 was just above five other countries. This is confirmed by observations by various other analysts (such as Kochanek, Braibanti and Wiess) of Pakistans socio-cultural environment.35 In Pakistan, individualism in the sense of the western urban society does not exist, particularly in rural areas. An individual is an inalienable part of the multiple groups which completely dominate his individuality. He or (particularly) she is not the master of his/her own destiny.36 Beyond family, zat (literally an endogamous group) demands loyalty from an individual. Tribes and clans are the counterparts of zat and biraderi (literally brotherhood) in tribal areas, NWFP and Baluchistan. Clan-based solidarity is a dominant feature of social life. The most significant manifestation of Pakistani collectivism is the key role played by family and kinship structures. In particular, rural Pakistan remains dominated by a value system based on kinship, family, zat (lineage group), qaum (occupational group) or tribe. Kinship connections are vital in cementing and negotiating bureaucratic hurdles.37 Clan-based patrilinial kinship ties play an important part in social, political and administrative organizations.38 All sections of society function within the context of these social structures and the values attached to them. Though the norms, values and institutions vary to some degree from region to region, the central place of the family and kinship remains constant. In Punjab and Sindh, for example, the dominant social organization consists of kinship networks called biraderis literally meaning brotherhoods. These are people who trace their lineage from a common ancestor.39 In the NWFP and Balochistan, tribal structures replace the biraderis. These kinship structures are so strong that they extend to towns and cities, penetrating the corporations, public bureaucracy and the political system. The individual is closely integrated into these networks and they determine his/her status, mobility and success. Family networks are the primary focus of loyalty. Their strength is reinforced by endogamous, cross-cousin marriages. The latter enable the family to retain land and assets within the family and build clan networks. These institutions impose a system of mutual obligations which perpetuates patronage and nepotism in government and private enterprises.40 They also play an important part in local electoral politics, administrative interactions and inter-relations within bureaucracy. One owes employment to ones relatives regardless of competence, support in feuds and conflicts irrespective of any criteria of justice and favors if one happens to be in a position of authority.41 The scope of these obligations extends beyond the extended family to the kinship or lineage group. The fulfillment of these obligations plays a fundamental role in maintaining the solidarity and status of the quom (lineage group) to which one belongs. A social structure that places such premium on family and kinship inhibits the development of loyalties to larger organizations or professional associations. Rules and norms based on family and kinship take precedence over professional or rational codes of conduct or even laws. Any action in pursuit of the welfare of the family or the in-group is acceptable. Ralph Braibanti, a public administration advisor to the Government of Pakistan, considered the intrusion of caste, communal and familial considerations in bureaucratic decision-making a fundamental factor. Even in cases where these factors did not matter, the perception prevailed that they did. Thus, every action of promotion, discipline and severance was viewed as capricious and based on cliquish animosities resulting from these ascriptive affiliations.42 Family- and kinship-based social structures have given rise to the culture of sifarish. This Urdu word literally means a recommendation or a connection. In some ways, it resembles the Chinese system of Guanxi. Short of straight bribing, it has become the standard means of getting things done by public functionaries. Ordinary public services that should be provided to the citizens by right in developed societies are procured through sifarish. Getting a passport, renewing a drivers license, clearing goods through customs, getting a telephone connection, admission to schools and universities and sometimes even making an airline reservation need sifarish. Often sifarish is used to pressure the decision-maker to take inappropriate or illegal action. It involves finding a relative or a close friend who knows the functionary or has some influence get the job done. In rural areas, access to water, electricity, fertilizers, sanitation, health services, roads could all be procured through sifarish. It makes a mockery of any rational system of service delivery based on rational criteria. The decision-makers who feel compelled under family and kinship group pressure to oblige their clients bend and break the rules. Those who do not play the sifarish game risk a bad reputation or even ostracization. Some departments have developed an institutionalized system so that the important officials can oblige their favourites. Pakistan International Airline allocates a quota of seats to various ministries and departments on every flight. They are kept available until the last minute. The universities and prestigious colleges have a quota of seats for important officials like the governors of the provinces. An experienced Pakistani diplomat, who served as Foreign Secretary and, more recently, as the Foreign Minister summed up the application of rules in Pakistan as follows: For friends everything, for enemies nothing and for the rest strict application of rules.