Question 3 [40] Read the case study below and answer the questions that follow. CASE STUDY INPACTS OF DROUGHT IN SOUTH AFRICA Last updated on Mon 14 Mar 2022 | Hydrology Drought impacts are not the result only of insufficient rainfall or searing temperatures. In most cases, drought impacts are the outcome of the interaction of a number of social and other human factors that can heighten the "vulnerability" of communities and various exposure units (e.g. vegetation) and reduce "resilience" of society and ecosystems to the natural hazard (Dilley, 2000; Vogel et al, 2000). As a result of these components of drought, a number of impacts are recorded. The scale of these impacts also varies and can be tracked at various levels (e.g., regional. national, community and household) of agricultural production. For example, production declined as a result of the 1980 s and 1990 s droughts in southern Africa. Harvest failures of between 30% and 80% below normal across the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region were recorded. Cereal production in the SADC countries dropped to less than 50% of the annual requirement in 1992, and the coet of imported food to the region rose to approximately 54 bition (Hulme., 1906). Drought related to the 19821963 El Nine cost nearity US\$1 bellion in direct damages with an estimated US5350 milion spent on farnine reliet (1993 prices) in nouthern Africa (International Federation of Red Croes and Red Crescent Societies, 1999). The economic loss to Africa's agricultural nector in the early 1900 s drought was entimated at US\$7 bilion (1992 prices) - an estimated 20 times the value of 1993 Worid Bank loans to sub-Saharan agriculture (international Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societien, 1999). More recently, the combined influence of drought. Hoods. economic instability and HIViAids threatened the food security of milions in southern Atrica (VFP. 2002). At a national level, drought ripples across sectors and impacts on a range of activities. On a national scale, drought in. South Africa ressuts in a reduction in the yield of the maize crop to below 1 tonne per hectare (Fig. 4). The outward effects triggered by drought range from its impact on agriculture's contribution to the gross domestic product (GDP) to a hot of other impacts such as food supply, employment opportunities, and a number of forward and backward linkages associated with the agricultural sector (Ballard, 1986; Van Zyl et al, 1987 . Van Zyl \& Nel. 1988). The declining agricultural yields associated with the droughts of the 1990 s, for example, negatively affected GDP growth by between 0.5% and 2% (Mather &. Adelzadch, 1997 ). The human consequences across sectors and groups are difficult to quantify accurately. For the agricultural sector the occurrence of drought, together with changes in agricultural policy. provision of farmer loans and other economic factors, can combine to heighten the impacts On the sector. During the severe drought of the early 19905 , for example, it was estimated that 50,000 jobs would be lost in the agricuitural sector (with a further 20,000 in related sectors) and about 250,000 in total (families included) would be affected (AFRA, 1992. Adams, 1993; Van Zyl, 1993). Crop failures occurred for both commercial and smaller-5cale farmers (Adams, 1993) and water levels in several of the major dams were less than two thirds their normal capacity (Fig. 5). Faulty and poorly maintained water infrastructure furthe aggravated the precarious water situation. Summer rainfall vs maize production Figure 4: Summer rainfall versus maize production (modified affer MoClintock. 1997, with kind permission, UBS Warburg. formenty SBC Warburg. Johannesburg) Water levels in South Africa's major dams Figure 5: Water levels in South Africa's major dams (modified after MoClintock, 1997, with kind permission, UBS Warburg, formerly SBC Warburg, Johannesburg). Drought is not, therefore, the fundamental problem in sub-Saharan Africa. Drought needs to be viewed together with a host of other hazards and realities including HIVIAids, violence and conflict, growing disparities between rich and poor, failing economies, and struggles over land, water and poverty. Drought indeed often merely uncovers the African development crisis and allows glimpses of harsh daily realities. At a local scale, the impacts of droughts are often hidden "costs" escaping detailed quantification. These include stripping household assets to procure a livelihood (stock and crops are reduced, the price of water and of basic food supplies often increases, retrenchments occur). declining household income, and social dislocation and disruption of local livelihoods (Bratton, 1987: Adams, 1993; Vogel, 1995: Scoones et al., 1996). Several assessments of vulnerability to droughts in Africa (Glantz \& Katz, 1985: Chambers, 1989; Vogel, 1995; Jallow, 1995; Davies, 1996; Downing et al, 1996) have shown that. droughts act together with a number of underlying factors to exacerbate local conditions. In southern Africa, during non-drought years the baseline prevalence of problems related to inadequate nutrition is "normally" low (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 1999). Drought cannot, therefore, be seen as the "cause" of such problems, rather, it exacerbates existing problems associated with poverty (Abrams et al, 1992; AFRA, 1992). Few detailed studies of drought impacts, coping responses and mitigation at the rural poor household level have been undertaken in South Africa (Freeman, 1984; AFRA, 1992; Vogel, 1995). Most assessments show that it is "access" and "entitiements" to resources that usually determine the magnitude of impact. Rural communities that farm and depend on the land for a livelihood often require access to irrigation, to markets to sell stock, financial resources to procure farming equipment, etc. Failure to procure these resources, together with a severe dry spell, can result in inexorable difficulties. During the drought of the early 1990s, for example, large numbers of cattle died in several rural areas [an estimated 500,000 cattle in the former Transkei, a former "independent homeland" in the eastern part of the country (Adams, 1993)]. Such losses of cattle do not only result in less meat and milk but also severely constrain the limited household incomes derived from cattle sales. Underpinning these circumstances is the complex history of the country, which has had a major influence on who farms, owns land, and can obtain access to the resources mentioned above (Lipton et al, 1996). Source: Impacts of droughts in South Africa - Hydrology (climate-policy-watcher.org) Date of Access: 29 March 2022 3.1 Define the term "drought". 3.2 Explain five possible causes of drought. 3.3 Discuss five possible effects of drought. 3.4 Discuss five possible measures to mitigate drought. 3.5 Is drought natural or caused by humans? Defend your answer by explaining both terms and giving examples. Question 3 [40] Read the case study below and answer the questions that follow. CASE STUDY INPACTS OF DROUGHT IN SOUTH AFRICA Last updated on Mon 14 Mar 2022 | Hydrology Drought impacts are not the result only of insufficient rainfall or searing temperatures. In most cases, drought impacts are the outcome of the interaction of a number of social and other human factors that can heighten the "vulnerability" of communities and various exposure units (e.g. vegetation) and reduce "resilience" of society and ecosystems to the natural hazard (Dilley, 2000; Vogel et al, 2000). As a result of these components of drought, a number of impacts are recorded. The scale of these impacts also varies and can be tracked at various levels (e.g., regional. national, community and household) of agricultural production. For example, production declined as a result of the 1980 s and 1990 s droughts in southern Africa. Harvest failures of between 30% and 80% below normal across the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region were recorded. Cereal production in the SADC countries dropped to less than 50% of the annual requirement in 1992, and the coet of imported food to the region rose to approximately 54 bition (Hulme., 1906). Drought related to the 19821963 El Nine cost nearity US\$1 bellion in direct damages with an estimated US5350 milion spent on farnine reliet (1993 prices) in nouthern Africa (International Federation of Red Croes and Red Crescent Societies, 1999). The economic loss to Africa's agricultural nector in the early 1900 s drought was entimated at US\$7 bilion (1992 prices) - an estimated 20 times the value of 1993 Worid Bank loans to sub-Saharan agriculture (international Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societien, 1999). More recently, the combined influence of drought. Hoods. economic instability and HIViAids threatened the food security of milions in southern Atrica (VFP. 2002). At a national level, drought ripples across sectors and impacts on a range of activities. On a national scale, drought in. South Africa ressuts in a reduction in the yield of the maize crop to below 1 tonne per hectare (Fig. 4). The outward effects triggered by drought range from its impact on agriculture's contribution to the gross domestic product (GDP) to a hot of other impacts such as food supply, employment opportunities, and a number of forward and backward linkages associated with the agricultural sector (Ballard, 1986; Van Zyl et al, 1987 . Van Zyl \& Nel. 1988). The declining agricultural yields associated with the droughts of the 1990 s, for example, negatively affected GDP growth by between 0.5% and 2% (Mather &. Adelzadch, 1997 ). The human consequences across sectors and groups are difficult to quantify accurately. For the agricultural sector the occurrence of drought, together with changes in agricultural policy. provision of farmer loans and other economic factors, can combine to heighten the impacts On the sector. During the severe drought of the early 19905 , for example, it was estimated that 50,000 jobs would be lost in the agricuitural sector (with a further 20,000 in related sectors) and about 250,000 in total (families included) would be affected (AFRA, 1992. Adams, 1993; Van Zyl, 1993). Crop failures occurred for both commercial and smaller-5cale farmers (Adams, 1993) and water levels in several of the major dams were less than two thirds their normal capacity (Fig. 5). Faulty and poorly maintained water infrastructure furthe aggravated the precarious water situation. Summer rainfall vs maize production Figure 4: Summer rainfall versus maize production (modified affer MoClintock. 1997, with kind permission, UBS Warburg. formenty SBC Warburg. Johannesburg) Water levels in South Africa's major dams Figure 5: Water levels in South Africa's major dams (modified after MoClintock, 1997, with kind permission, UBS Warburg, formerly SBC Warburg, Johannesburg). Drought is not, therefore, the fundamental problem in sub-Saharan Africa. Drought needs to be viewed together with a host of other hazards and realities including HIVIAids, violence and conflict, growing disparities between rich and poor, failing economies, and struggles over land, water and poverty. Drought indeed often merely uncovers the African development crisis and allows glimpses of harsh daily realities. At a local scale, the impacts of droughts are often hidden "costs" escaping detailed quantification. These include stripping household assets to procure a livelihood (stock and crops are reduced, the price of water and of basic food supplies often increases, retrenchments occur). declining household income, and social dislocation and disruption of local livelihoods (Bratton, 1987: Adams, 1993; Vogel, 1995: Scoones et al., 1996). Several assessments of vulnerability to droughts in Africa (Glantz \& Katz, 1985: Chambers, 1989; Vogel, 1995; Jallow, 1995; Davies, 1996; Downing et al, 1996) have shown that. droughts act together with a number of underlying factors to exacerbate local conditions. In southern Africa, during non-drought years the baseline prevalence of problems related to inadequate nutrition is "normally" low (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 1999). Drought cannot, therefore, be seen as the "cause" of such problems, rather, it exacerbates existing problems associated with poverty (Abrams et al, 1992; AFRA, 1992). Few detailed studies of drought impacts, coping responses and mitigation at the rural poor household level have been undertaken in South Africa (Freeman, 1984; AFRA, 1992; Vogel, 1995). Most assessments show that it is "access" and "entitiements" to resources that usually determine the magnitude of impact. Rural communities that farm and depend on the land for a livelihood often require access to irrigation, to markets to sell stock, financial resources to procure farming equipment, etc. Failure to procure these resources, together with a severe dry spell, can result in inexorable difficulties. During the drought of the early 1990s, for example, large numbers of cattle died in several rural areas [an estimated 500,000 cattle in the former Transkei, a former "independent homeland" in the eastern part of the country (Adams, 1993)]. Such losses of cattle do not only result in less meat and milk but also severely constrain the limited household incomes derived from cattle sales. Underpinning these circumstances is the complex history of the country, which has had a major influence on who farms, owns land, and can obtain access to the resources mentioned above (Lipton et al, 1996). Source: Impacts of droughts in South Africa - Hydrology (climate-policy-watcher.org) Date of Access: 29 March 2022 3.1 Define the term "drought". 3.2 Explain five possible causes of drought. 3.3 Discuss five possible effects of drought. 3.4 Discuss five possible measures to mitigate drought. 3.5 Is drought natural or caused by humans? Defend your answer by explaining both terms and giving examples