The seemingly infinite demand for electric vehicle $($EV$)$ batteries has changed due to technological developments. A typical supply chain has forward and reverse flows. Which one of the following activities would represent activities in a reverse flow in the supply chain of electric vehicle $($EV$)$ batteries?

Researching and developing alternative battery chemistries, such as sodium$-$ion batteries, due to the prevailing limited availability of the key materials lithium and cobalt.

The manufacturing of nickel manganese cobalt batteries is favoured in the West, while China is dominant in lithium iron phosphate batteries.

Replacing liquid electrolyte with a solid ceramic during manufacturing would unlock batteries with higher energy density, faster charging and improved safety.

Recycling end$-$of$-$life could soften the environmental impact while providing a chance to repurpose valuable materials like lithium.