Writer Ester van Laar1 , Alexander J. A. M. van Deursen1 , Jan A. G. M. van Dijk1 , and Jos de Haan Introduction Society has shifted from an economy based on commodities and manual labor to an economy based on knowledge and highly qualified human capital . Employees need to be pre-pared to shift jobs and to be flexible in acquiring skills. Information and communication technology (ICT) is perva-sive in the workplace and there is a high demand for ICT-proficient employees. To study differences in digital skills and to develop interventions for skill improvements, in the past years several skill frameworks and definitions have been introduced (e.g., 21st-century skills, digital skills, digital competence, digital literacy, e-skills, internet skills). The approach to the definition of digital skills has shifted from a technical orientation toward a wider perspective that consid-ers content-related or higher-order skills (Claro et al., 2012). A recent systematic literature review of academic literature proposed seven core skills with digital components. The identified 21st-century digital skills are technical, informa- tion, communication, collaboration, creativity, critical think-ing and problem-solving (Van Laar et al., 2017). 21st-Century Skills The skills needed for education and the workplace in the cur-rent economy have been labeled 21st-century skills. To define and systemize these skills, a number of initiatives have outlined frameworks. The Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21, 2007) is a joint governmentcorporate organiza-tion which lists three types of skills: learning skills (creativ- ity and innovation; critical thinking and problem-solving; communication and collaboration), literacy skills (informa-tion literacy; media literacy; ICT literacy), and life skills (flexibility and adaptability; initiative and self-direction; social and cross-cultural skills; productivity and accountabil-ity; leadership and responsibility). The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), for example, has categorized 21st-century skills as information, communication, and ethics and social impact. As the exact definition, amount, and subset of incorporated skills differ, efforts have been made to point out the commonalities in the conceptualization of 21st-century skills. Voogt and Roblin (2012) showed that all frameworks include ICT-related skills, collaboration, communication, and social and cultural competences. Besides, most acknowledge creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving. However, most 21st-century skills frame- works do not go beyond the stage of conceptual definition. Ferrari (2012) mentioned that a plethora of concepts and frameworks have been introduced to highlight the need to handle technology in the digital age. In the digital skills literature, a number of instruments have been used to measure digital skills (e.g., Digital skills research acknowledges that both basic skills necessary to use the internet and skills required to comprehend and use online content should be accounted for (Bawden, From this point of departure, several authors have suggested specific skills, mostly related to information searching. Although this is a valuable addition to the concept, the focus is often on the technicalities of internet use as opposed to a broad range of skills. Only a few approaches provide an integration of digital and 21st-century skills, and therefore, we did not consider the digital part as a precondition for identifying potential determinants of 21st-century digital skills. On the one hand, 21st-century skills literature emphasizes a broad spectrum of skills, yet do not explicitly integrate digital aspects. The digital skills literature, on the other hand, often does not cover the broad spectrum of skills posed by 21st-century skills studies. Van Laar et al. (2017) conducted a systematic literature to synthesize the relevant academic literature concerned with 21st-century skills and digital skills. Their review resulted in seven core and five contextual skills. As ICT is pervasive in the workplace, the digital com- ponent can be integrated into 21st-century skills. This study elaborates on the seven core skills supported by the use of ICT: technical, information management, communication, collaboration, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solv- ing. These skills are fundamental for performing tasks in a broad range of occupations. Here, we deliberately distin- guish between 21st-century skills and digital skills as they are often considered separately. Therefore, we first discuss the core 21st-century skills, and in the next paragraph we systematically add the digital component. Technical skills. To maintain competitive advantage, employees must be fluent in the skills and languages of ever-changing technologies (Lemke, 2002). For increasing productivity, new technology is developed, and as a conse- quence, technology is increasingly replacing manual labor and being integrated into most aspects of work (Fuchs, 2010). Workforces need to be capable of continuously adapt- ing to shifting job requirements related to new skill-intensive Laar et al. 3 technologies (Levy & Murnane, 2004). As workplaces have become more complex and supported by ICT, more jobs require technical skills. Information skills. The abundance of information and data implies that employees in nearly all sectors of the economy must be able to search, evaluate, and organize information, often coming from multiple sources (Silva, 2009). The quick access to a wide range of information sources means that people need to recognize when information is needed and to evaluate the reliability and relative value of information (Marchionini & White, 2007; Starkey, 2011). Communication skills. Communication skills are vital in the growing service sector and concern the ability to trans- mit information, ensuring that the meanings are effectively expressed by taking into account the audience and medium (Ananiadou & Claro, 2009; Katz, 2007). One must be able to effectively regulate ones needs and goals with those of the larger society to successfully navigate in the current social world (Voogt et al., 2013). Because of the interconnected- ness of our global economy, employers demand people with communication skills (Levy & Murnane, 2004). Collaboration skills. Work is becoming more knowledge- based, interdisciplinary, and specialized. The complexity of tasks requires employees to collaborate, as individuals can- not possess all knowledge and skills (Wang, 2010). As a con- sequence, work is increasingly performed by teams of people with complementary expertise and roles (Dede, 2010; Fraser & Hvolby, 2010). Employees are often dependent on oth- ers to accomplish their tasks (Bronstein, 2003). To function interdependently, they need a clear understanding of their own roles and those of their collaborating partners. Critical thinking skills. Critical thinking broadly refers to making informed choices about obtained information and communication by using sufficient reflection and reasoning. It concerns the ability to think reflectively and judge skill- fully, so as to decide what information or communication is relevant in a given context (Gut, 2011). The ability to filter the amount of incoming data to formulate your own point of view is a key 21st-century skill (Dede, 2010). To think criti- cally, employees need knowledge that is central to the par- ticular domain to formulate an independent, well-grounded perspective or opinion (Van de Oudeweetering & Voogt, 2018). Creativity skills. In addition to being able to process and transmit information, it is necessary to transform informa- tion into new knowledge. Previous research has often rea- soned that complex problems necessitate creative solutions (Kaufman, 2013). Creativity is related to the production of new and useful ideas on products, services, or processes that are both novel and potentially useful (e.g., Amabile, 1988; Oldham & Cummings, 1996). Because employee creativity is presented as an imperative for long-term organizational success (DiLiello & Houghton, 2008), it arises as a critical skill for organizations to lead or adapt to change. Problem-solving skills. As the workforce is increasingly confronted with challenging and nonrecurrent problems (Autor et al., 2003), employees need the skills to solve domain-specific problems. Situations that are complex and uncertain and that have no precedent require problem-solv- ing skills (Keane et al., 2016). Problem-solving is often con- ceptualized as the knowledge and skills that are required to deal effectively with complex nonroutine situations (Funke et al., 2018). Although domain-specific knowledge plays an important role, it is not just prior knowledge. An employee must identify necessary actions, possible gaps, and steps to obtain this information (Rausch & Wuttke, 2016). Adding the Digital Component: 21st-Century Digital Skills Technical skills are similar as proposed in the notion of 21st- century skills. These are the skills that workers need to use software or operate a digital device. They are dynamic, involving a continual effort to keep up with new technolo- gies and practices. Information digital skills. The information abundance caused by ICT requires skills for searching, evaluating, and organizing information in digital environments (Catts & Lau, 2008). Information management includes the ability to (a) clearly define information needs, (b) identify digital infor- mation, and (c) select digital information in an effective and efficient way (Ananiadou & Claro, 2009). Once the informa- tion has been found, workers need the skills to evaluate how valuable the source and its contents are for the task. More- over, workers need the skills to store and organize the digital information for easy retrieval. As todays workers often use multiple digital devices, they need the skills to distribute and maintain information across their digital devices (Song & Ling, 2011). Communication digital skills. ICT has made it easier to reach a wide audience and communicate at a distance, faster and more ubiquitously. Individuals are able to express them- selves, establish relationships, and interact with others at any distance in time and space (Yu et al., 2010). ICT-based communication is regarded as a means of generating social interactions and strengthening social relationships (Hwang, 2011). It is imperative that workers understand how to appro- priately and effectively communicate using email, social networking sites, and instant messaging services (Lewin & McNicol, 2015; Wang et al., 2012). People are encouraged to share ideas and opinions within organizations and online forum communities (Lu & Lee, 2012). Workers need the skills to contact other members, maintain those contacts, and 4 SAGE Open share online content and media with their contacts. Online content-sharing activities range from sharing status updates, posts, photos, and videos to writing comments and blogs (Brandtzg et al., 2010). Collaboration digital skills. Collaboration processesmanag- ing interdependencies across time to achieve a common goalare increasingly supported by ICT. ICT is especially useful when teams must share information and make deci- sions across business and national boundaries (Wang, 2010). With the use of collaboration software as chats (e.g., Skype or WhatsApp), colleagues can instantaneously interchange ideas, information, and experiences. Workers therefore need the skills to connect and collaborate with others beyond a constrained physical environment (Starkey, 2011). More- over, with the help of content management systems, it is possible to work on the same document at the same time. As such, workers need the skills to work together on shared documents and projects beyond the restrictions of time and place (Lewin & McNicol, 2015). In todays knowledge society, given the emergence of online collaborative plat- forms, it is even more important to understand and manage the sharing of information across the organization (Blu & Utz, 2017). Critical thinking digital skills. Critical thinking has been identified as being particularly important because in a global online environment people participate and resources are created with various intentions and competences (Starkey, 2011). Online contents must be critically assessed in this age of disinformation and fake news. It is crucial that people understand its nature and source. The focus is on the quality of messages in relation to performance in argumentation. It is crucial for workers to rapidly filter incoming online informa- tion and communication and to extract valuable information (Dede, 2010). They must be able to induce critical reflection upon the points that are being discussed online and give sus- tained arguments that steer the online discussion. Creative digital skills. ICT can support creativity in mul- tiple ways, including developing ideas and creating or real- izing ideas (Loveless, 2007). Digital environments allow workers to assess various design concepts, experiences, and ideas. Furthermore, Web 2.0 technology enables workers to produce and share content in new ways. Online content creation is the use of online spaces to create content includ- ing weblogging and photo and video sharing (Brake, 2014). User-generated content creation becomes a common creative practice (Lai & Yang, 2014; Lessig, 2008) in which creativ- ity determines whether the online-generated content is suc- cessfully received by the audience.

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