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earth sciences
geology

Questions and Answers of Geology

How does a gabbro weather in a temperate climate?
What is the origin of acid rain, and how does it relate to weathering?
What are the three main soil groups as classified on the basis of the minerals present in the A and B horizons?
What are the three main clay groups that form by chemical weathering?
How are sediments formed on the earth’s surface?
Name the three most abundant types of sedimentary rocks in order of decreasing abundance and tell why each is so abundant.
What is the genetic difference between the two main classes of sediments—clastic and chemical?
How widespread are sedimentary rocks and sediments on the earth’s surface?
Name the four main clastic sediment and sedimentary
How are loose sediments transformed (lithified) into hard sedimentary rock?
Why is most sediment and sedimentary rock deposited in horizontal or near-horizontal layers or beds?
Where is sediment deposited? That is, what are the environments of deposition? (See Fig. 5.2.).
Why is the principle of uniformitarianism so important to sedimentary geologists?
(a) Define and explain the significance of the law of superposition which was first expounded upon by Nicholas Steno, a Dane, in 1669.
(a) Why are cross-beds (Fig. 5.4) very important sedimentary structures?
What type of bed is illustrated in Fig. 5.5(a)?
In Fig. 5.5, which sediment is most poorly sorted and which is best sorted, and why?
How were thick sequences of abundant graded sandstone beds and mudstones (Fig. 5.6) probably formed?
(a) Figure 5.7 includes a map and cross-section of a part of Grand Banks, Newfoundland, and the adjacent sea floor. On November 8, 1929, an earthquake occurred here, causing a huge submarine
The four main types of sandstone are illustrated in Fig. 5.8. Which is which, and why?
Contrast the histories of a well-rounded, well-sorted quartz sandstone [Fig. 5.8(a)] and a poorly sorted graywacke with angular grains of various compositions [Fig. 5.8(d)].
Where are modern turbidity current deposits (turbidites) generally found? See Figs. 5.2 and 5.7.
Some sandstones are said to be “mature.” What does this mean, and what does it reveal about the history of the sandstone?
What kind of igneous rock is a likely source rock for an arkose sandstone?
Why wouldn’t gabbro be a likely source rock for an arkose sandstone?
The precipitation of calcite can be illustrated by this equation: Ca(HCO3)2 = CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 What would cause this reaction to move to the right (i.e., to precipitate calcite) if the seawater
In the above equation, what is the result of the loss of CO2?
Two limestones are shown in microscopic views in Fig. 5.9. Contrast their histories.
What does the presence of a limestone indicate about the nature of the area in which it was formed?
How are sediments commonly sorted according to size so that pebbles are in one place, sand in another, silt in another, and clay elsewhere?
Explain sedimentary facies. (See Fig. 5.10.)
Why is the study of sedimentary rocks of more than academic interest?
Why do geologists study sandstones under the microscope? (See Figs. 5.8 and 5.9.)
What are the main cations (positively charged ions) and anions (negatively charged ions) in seawater?
How are beds of salt formed?
If a body of seawater is totally evaporated, what sequence of rock types results?
What mineralogical connotation do the terms sand and sandstone have?
What is an explanation for the fact, experimentally proven, that quartz sand grains are rounded much faster by wind than by a river?
Why do boulders, cobbles, and pebbles round with only a few kilometers of transport whereas sand is difficult to round and silt hardly ever becomes rounded?
What is dolomite or dolostone?
How is most dolomite formed?
What do mudcracks in a sedimentary rock indicate?
What does the size of cross-bedding (Fig. 5.4) indicate about the origin of the sedimentary rock in which it is found?
What does a conglomerate indicate about the energy conditions in the environment of deposition?
Do ripple marks preserved in a sedimentary rock indicate deposition in shallow water?
How are sedimentary rocks classified into types?
Much calcium carbonate is precipitated biochemically. How?
Muddy rocks, sandstones, and carbonates make up about 99 percent of all sedimentary rocks. What are some other sedimentary rock types?
Who is given credit for the principle of uniformitarianism (the present is the key to the past)?
Some sequences of sedimentary rocks are tens of thousands of meters thick. Does this thickness indicate that some great catastrophe occurred?
In Chapter 4, “clay minerals” are discussed. Yet, in Problem 5.5, clay has a size connotation. Does the word clay have a dual meaning?
Explain, in general terms, sedimentary differentiation
Carbonate mud becomes hard limestone in large part by the process of recrystallization. Explain.
How do Clastic sedimentary rocks reveal clues to the climate in the source area from which the sediment was derived?
What is chert?
What is chalk?
Where are evaporite minerals such as salt forming today?
What is coal?
What is the most abundant chemically (or biochemically) precipitated rock?
Are limestones being formed today?
What are deep sea oozes?
Where are fossils found?
It has been stated that sediment is moved downhill from the site of weathering by running water (ice), or other agents of transportation, under the influence of gravity. Is there an exception to this
What is probably the major control on sedimentation?
Which rock unit in Fig. 5.3 diagrammatically illustrates sedimentary facies?
What are the metamorphic equivalents of the following sedimentary rocks: shale, (a) mudstone or (b) limestone, and (c) quartz sandstone?
How do geologists know that mineral a changes to mineral B under certain pressures and temperatures (Fig. 6.3)?
Explain what happens as a mudstone becomes a schist during metamorphism [Figs. 6.1(a), 6.1(b), 6.1(c), and 6.2].
How do metamorphic facies (Fig. 6.5) differ from sedimentary facies (see Problem 5.27)?
Does metamorphism occur only when rocks are subjected to higher temperatures and pressures?
Name some common metamorphic minerals.
Name some minerals which generally form only under metamorphic conditions.
Which rock—an impure limestone or a quartz sandstone—would be most likely to yield new minerals during metamorphism?
Which kind of metamorphism—contact or regional—is illustrated in Fig. 6.7?
Refer back to Fig. 3.1. Near which kind of igneous rock body would contact metamorphism be the most pronounced?
Refer back to Fig. 3.1. Near which kind of igneous rock body would contact metamorphism be the most pronounced?
Why does slate possess a good rock cleavage and break into flat pieces? (See Figs. 6.1 and 6.2.)
What is the difference between rock cleavage (slaty cleavage) and cleavage in minerals?
On a geology exam, one question read as follows: “During metamorphism, rocks may be melted at temperatures as high as 1000°C. Comment.” OK, comment.
Where does regional metamorphism generally occur?
Where does contact metamorphism occur?
During metamorphism, what happens to the size of crystals?
Name the metamorphic rock that contains bands of different minerals, for example, plagioclase and quartz in the light-colored bands and biotite and hornblende in the dark-colored bands.
What is foliation?
What does foliation reveal about the conditions under which it formed?
Temperature and pressure are commonly cited as the causes of metamorphism. What is another factor?
What is a mica-rich metamorphic rock called?
Name three types of mica that are common in metamorphic rocks.
What is a greenschist or greenstone? (See Fig. 6.5.)
What is granitization?
Figure 6.8 shows two granite bodies. What evidence indicates that one crystallized from a magma and the other is the product of granitization?
What is retrograde metamorphism?
What is a hornfels?
Metamorphism occurs at depth. How, then, can geologists study metamorphic rocks?
Why are some metamorphic rocks massive, rather than foliated?
What are the sources of water that may be present during metamorphism?
What are the sources of heat for metamorphism?
What is hydrothermal alteration?
What is a blueschist?

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