Research has shown that hungry rats will perform more effectively in a T-maze when the reinforcer for a correct response (right turn versus left turn) consists of several small pellets as opposed to one large pellet (Capaldi, Miller, &

Alptekin, 1989). Chickens will also run faster down a runway to obtain a popcorn kernel presented in four pieces than in one whole piece (Wolfe & Kaplon, 1941). The fact that several small bites of food is a more effective reinforcer than one large bite is consistent with the notion of (drive reduction/incentive motivation) _______________________________.