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Non$-$Repudiation

a$)$ involves small electronic devices that change user passwords automatically.

b$)$ involves full$-$time monitoring tools that search for patterns in network traffic to identify intruders. IDS was cutting edge a decade ago, but has now evolved into Intrustion Detection and Prevention Systems.

c$)$ is a mechanism to ensure that individuals cannot deny their actions. Examples include ensuring that users who spend money cannot deny that they really did authorize a transaction, or authors who edit a text cannot pretend that the change was theirs.