Summarize those steps.

1- Identifying T&D Needs

The first step of the systems model is concerned with the identification of the learning and development needs of organizational members. The training needs analysis (TNA) is the key activity of the systematic approach and essentially serves to identify any discrepancies, the T&D gap, between existing KSA and those required in the present and in the future. Thus, it ensures the integration of employee T&D activities with the business needs of the firm. Hence, the TNA must assess the validity of initiatives, it ought to assist in prioritizing T&D objectives and initiatives, and it has to be able to determine the actual training needs. Training needs may arise at three distinct levels (Boydell, 1983):

At an organizational level (current and future employee T&D requirements that an organization has to fulfill in order to attain its strategic long-term objectives)

At a job level (relevant KSA that are part of specific jobs)

At a personal level (the competences required)

Because of the crucial importance and comprehensive nature of the TNA, many organizations employ an HRIS to collect, store, and analyze training needs data, thus ensuring that the resulting information is both timely and accurate. Data sources range from business objectives and statistics, at the organizational level, to job descriptions and output levels, at the job level, and staff appraisals, biographical data, and individual training records, at the personal level. Most HRIS can be configured to gather data from these and other sources. However, a host of specialist T&D software (discussed further on in this chapter) exists that will aid a firm in accomplishing its T&D activities. In the event, however, that the TNA highlights a considerable gap between existing and desired KSA, an organization may decide on external recruitment to hire individuals who already possess the required competencies. In that case, it will be of vital importance that the organization has access to skilled personnel and demographic data, which might provide some indication regarding the skill levels of the wider population and the environment in which the firm operates.

2- Developing T&D Initiatives

The second stage of the cycle focuses on the development of T&D initiatives, objectives, and methods that should be capable of meeting the three levels of needs identified during the first phase, the TNA. Organizations have a wide array of T&D methods at their disposal, and advances in and access to ICT and mobile technologies will further increase the number of methods and ways of content delivery available. Faced with an apparent overabundance of methods, how should organizations choose the ones most appropriate for their needs? A number of criteria will guide the decision-making process. The effectiveness of individual learning plans and events ultimately hinges on the design of these T&D interventions. A learning activity can be considered successful if it leads to transfer of learning as well as a noticeable and permanent change in behavior in the trainees. The aim of the HRIS in this context is to compare employee training data with subsequent performance data. Successful learning events must achieve a best fit between

the content of what is to be learned,

the media through which content is delivered, and

the method used to facilitate learning (see Figure 13.2).

With regard to individual learning, it is important to note that every individual has his or her preferred learning style and that these learning styles must be taken into consideration when one designs a training event to encourage learning transfer (explained below). Based on Kolbs (1984) learning cycle, which involves a concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation, Honey and Mumford (1992) developed four preferred learning stylesactivist, reflector, theorist, and pragmatist.

In todays highly regulated working environments, it is also essential to attain internal and external consistency. Internal consistency is achieved if learning interventions are mutually supportive of one another and of the business objectives. External consistency is attained if T&D activities are aligned with external regulations (e.g., health and safety legislation), best practices in the industry, and the stipulations and standards of external training award bodies. T&D methods essentially fall into two broad categorieson the job and off the job, albeit the emergence of e-learning has somewhat diluted this distinction, as it can be either. On-the-job training usually involves peer observation and can be informal, structured, or unstructured, although successful learning outcomes are more likely to occur in a structured rather than an unstructured environment. Compared with off-the-job training, on-the-job training is relatively inexpensive. While off-the-job methods may provide greater exposure to expert knowledge, they may also be more time-consuming and may not encourage knowledge transfer. * e-Learning

e-Learning (also elearning, Elearning, or eLearning) is an umbrella term and broadly refers to any learning facilitated using electronic means. Recent reports by the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD, 2012), the Society for Human Resource Management (2011) and American Society for Training & Development (2011) indicate that as the number of people accessing the Internet using a mobile device surpasses the number of people doing so using ordinary desktop computers, mobile learning and social media are rapidly replacing traditional forms of learning and early forms of e- Learning, such as computer-based training. e-Learning can capitalize on a variety of different technologies that have emerged as a result of rapid developments in information technology and the World Wide Web. The technologies can be commonly categorized as Web 1.0, Web 2.0, and Web 3.0.

3- Implementing T&D

The third stage of the systems model of T&D involves the implementation of training. Although this stage is depicted as a separate phase of the training process, it is closely linked with the preceding stage, the design stage. Indeed, many book chapters on T&D consider both stages in unison. The reason for this is that the design of a training solution ultimately determines its implementation, as any issues and factors that could arise during the implementation phase should be anticipated at the design stage (Stewart, 1999). For instance, if an organization wanted to roll out e-learning to its entire workforce via the company intranet, the firm would have to ensure that every employee had access to the intranet. To ensure that the implementation phase runs smoothly, organizations ought to formulate an implementation plan that should specify

the resources required,

how the training should be carried out,

who should facilitate the training, and

the period within which the training should occur.

The requisite resources vary with the training method chosen. While traditional face-to-face training necessitates physical training rooms and equipment, e-learning requires initial investments in ICT. Available resources are normally set out in predetermined annual training budgets. The training design will provide answers to the questions of how, by whom, and when training should be implemented. The implementation of a T&D initiative can only be considered successful if transfer of learning has occurred.

Training Transfer

Positive and long-lasting changes in employee behavior and, ultimately, increased shareholder value can only be attained if training (or learning) transfer occurs. Training transfer is the continuous application of the KSA acquired during the training exercise. Various classifications of transfer of training exist depending on the context:

Near versus far (how close the training task is to the actual job task)

Specific versus general (transfer of skills versus transfer of principles)

Positive versus negative (linked to the perception of the training experience)

Lateral versus vertical (Hayashi, Chen, & Terase, 2005)

Lateral transfer is about the application of training to similar tasks at the same level of complexity, while vertical transfer implies analysis and synthesis, that is, the ability to apply training to more complex tasks (Gagn, 1985). Training transfer depends on a number of variables, which can be summarized under five headings (Baldwin & Ford, 1988):

1. Trainee characteristics (the trainees predisposition to training)

2. Training design (the organization of the learning environment)

3. Work environment (the immediate factors at work that affect transfer)

4. Learning and retention

5. Generalization and maintenance (ensuring that the trainee is given the opportunity to continuously use the acquired KSA)

Only if the trainee possesses the necessary characteristics, the training design and workplace environment foster learning transfer, and the trainee is given ample opportunity to apply the training will learning and retention take place. In addition, it has been demonstrated that transfer of training is critically dependent on the organizational climate that supports the training transfer (Lance, Kavanagh, & Brink, 2002; Rouiller & Goldstein, 1993; Tracey, Tannenbaum, & Kavanagh, 1995; Velada, Caetano, Michel, Lyons, & Kavanagh, 2007).

4- Evaluating T&D

To assess whether a particular training initiative, method, or solution has met the training needs and objectives of the firm and whether transfer of learning has taken place, organizations must evaluate their T&D efforts. Training evaluation is not an isolated activity. It is part of the T&D cycle and must be considered alongside and aligned with needs analysis, design, and implementation to provide a holistic picture of the entire T&D process. Similar to the T&D cycle, the evaluation process should be viewed as cyclical.

The evaluation process commences with the needs analysis. Training needs must then be translated into measurable learning outcomes. Appropriate metrics must be identified against which outcomes can be measured. The next step involves the selection of an appropriate evaluation strategy. Not all training can be assessed in the same manner because of the diversity in training methods. Once an evaluation has been carried out, the results must be analyzed and fed back into the training process. This final step is omitted in many evaluation models, even though it is crucially important to use evaluation data to make decisions about future training initiatives. An HRIS can be invaluable in supporting this process as it contains a vast amount of data related to training and performance that can form the basis of any T&D decision.