Take a look at the items below and think about whether research indicates that affirmative action has outlived its usefulness. Research shows that people who hire tend to notice value more quickly in someone who looks like them.16 In the suburbs, equally qualified blacks are hired about 40 percent less than whites because of negative assumptions.17 Almost 90 percent of jobs are filled through word-of-mouth rather than advertising, result- ing in fewer minorities and women being able to take advantage of those networks.18 In one experiment, retailers consistently chose slightly less qualified white women over more qualified black women in entry-level positions.19 When black and white discrimination testers who are similar in qualifications, dress, and so on applied for jobs, whites were 45 percent more likely to receive job offers and 22 percent more likely to be granted interviews.20 When made-up resumes were sent out in re- sponse to classified ads, with only names changed to sound more or less ethnic and addresses changed to more likely be in predominantly black areas, white applicants were not only more likely to be granted interviews, but employers tried harder to reach them. Whites were 50 percent more likely to be chosen based only on their resu- mes, when the blacks were more qualified in terms of experience and credentials.21 In 2012, a female with an associates degree had median weekly earnings of $682, while a male with only a high school diploma and no college, earned $720. A female with a masters degree earned $1,125 or only $74 dollars more than a male with a bachelors degree, who earned $1,199. A female with a doctorate degree earned only $144 more than a male with a mas- ters degree ($1,371 vs. $1,515).22 According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, in a study released in 2013, the weekly earnings of white males was $879, white females, $710; African-American males, $665; African-American females, $599; Latino males, $562, and Latina females, $521.23 In an important longitudinal study of black and white women ages 34 to 44, only one-fifth of the gap between their wages could be explained by education and experience. The study found that while women are segregated into lower-paying jobs, the impact is greater on African-American women than white women.24 After a comprehensive GAO study in 2003 showed a 20 percent gap in wages between males and females even when the researchers held steady for the usual factors that would cause such a difference, such as education, job tenure, race, industry, and so on. In 2008 it reported that enforcement agencies should do a better job monitoring the situation.25 Women of colorAfrican-American, Latina, and Asianare overrepresented in institutional service work, in occupations such as private household workers, cleaners, nurses aides and licensed practical nurses, typists, file clerks, kitchen workers, hospital orderlies, and some occupations in the food packaging and textile industries. Other jobs that have disproportion- ate numbers of women and men of color include guards and corrections officers, mail and postal clerks, social workers, telephone op- erators, bus drivers, taxi drivers and chauffeurs, and some operator or laborer jobs within manufacturing.26 Research indicates that as the percentage of females and the percentage of minorities in a job increase, average pay falls, even when all other factors are held steady. African-American men with professional de- grees receive 79 percent of the salary paid to white men with the same degrees and compa- rable jobs. African-American women earn 60 percent. continA study conducted by the U.S. Department of Labor found that women and minorities have made more progress breaking through the glass ceiling at smaller companies. Women constitute 25 percent of the managers and cor- porate officers in smaller establishments, while minorities represent 10 percent. But among Fortune 500 companies, women held 18 per- cent of the managerial jobs, with minorities holding 7 percent. The federal Glass Ceiling Commission found that white women made up close to half the workforce, but held only 5 percent of the senior- level jobs in corporations. African-Americans and other minorities account for less than 3 percent of top jobs (vice president and above).27 The Glass Ceiling Commission found that a majority of chief executives acknowledge that the federal guidelines have been crucial in maintaining their commitment to a diverse workforce. It is estimated that only 30 to 40 percent of American companies are committed to affirmative action programs purely for busi- ness reasons, without any federal pressure. Most medium-sized and small companies, where job growth is greatest and affirmative ac- tion the gains biggest, have adopted affirmative action only grudgingly, and without guidelines, they are most likely to toss it overboard. Studies show that there is little correlation be- tween what African-American and white work- ers score on employment tests and how they perform in the workplace. A Census Bureau28 survey of 3,000 businesses asked them to list the things they consider most important when hiring workers. The employers ranked test scores as 8th on a list of 11 factors. Generally speaking, job testing did not come into wide usage in the United States until after Title VII. The Glass Ceiling Commission research reported that stereotyping and prejudice still rule many executive suites. Women and minorities are frequently routed into career paths like cus- tomer relations and human resources, which usually do not lead to the top jobs.29 Cecelia Conrad, associate professor of economics at Barnard College in New York, examined whether affirmative action plans had hurt worker productivity. She found no evidence that there has been any decline in productivity due to affirmative action. She also found no evidence of improved productivity due to affirmative action.30 A study of Standard and Poors 500 companies found firms that broke barriers for women and minorities reported stock market records nearly 2.5 times better than comparable companies that took no action.

Facts matter, and the emotions and prejudices that often surround discussion about affirmative action sometimes get in the way. Provide a discussion of facts (at least 5) that you think create a strong basis for affirmative action programs. Then provide a discussion of the listed facts that you think do NOT create a strong basis for affirmative action, if any.