The formula for calculating the present value factor utilized in determining the Internal Rate of Return $($IRR$)$ for a capital investment is the same formula utilized in which of the following methods?

a$.$ Payback Period Method

b$.$ Accounting Rate of Return $($ARR$)$ Method

c$.$ Net Present Value $($NPV$)$ Method

d$.$ Contribution Margin $($CM$)$ Method

e$.$ None of the above