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statistical sampling to auditing
Statistical Methods For Psychology 8th Edition David C. Howell - Solutions
The Thematic Apperception Test presents subjects with ambiguous pictures and asks them to tell a story about them. These stories can be scored in any number of ways. Werner, Stabenau, and Pollin (1970) asked mothers of 20 Normal and 20 Schizophrenic children to complete the TAT, and scored for the
What is the role of random assignment in the Everitt’s anorexia study referred to in Exercise==7.31, and under what conditions might we find it difficult to carry out random assignment?
Why isn’t the difference between the results in 7.34 and 7.19 greater than it is?
Run the appropriate t test on the data in 7.19 assuming that the observations are independent.What would you conclude?
In Exercise 7.19 we saw pairs of observations on sexual satisfaction for husbands and wives.Suppose that those data had actually come from unrelated males and females, such that the data are no longer paired. What effect do you expect this to have on the analysis?
Calculate the confidence interval on m1 2 m2 and d for the data in Exercise 7.31. If available, use the software mentioned earlier to calculate confidence limits on d.
In Exercise 7.25, data from Everitt showed that girls receiving cognitive behavior therapy gained weight over the course of the therapy. However, it is possible they just gained weight because they just got older. One way to control for this is to look at the amount of weight gained by the
Many mothers experience a sense of depression shortly after the birth of a child. Design a study to examine postpartum depression and, from material in this chapter, tell how you would estimate the mean increase in depression.
In the study referred to in Exercise 7.13, Katz et al. (1990) compared the performance on SAT items of a group of 17 students who were answering questions about a passage after having read the passage with the performance of a group of 28 students who had not seen the passage. The mean and standard
For the control condition of the experiment in Exercise 7.25 the beginning and 10-week means were 4.32 and 4.61 with standard deviations of 0.98 and 1.13, respectively. The sample size was 130. Using the data from this group and the intervention group, plot the change in pre- to post-test scores
Another way to investigate the effectiveness of the intervention described in Exercise 7.25 would be to note that the mean quality-of-life score before the intervention was 4.47 with a standard deviation of 1.18. The quality-of-life score was 5.03 after the intervention with a standard deviation of
In Exercise 7.25 calculate a confidence interval for the difference in group means. Then calculate a d-family measure of effect size for that difference.
Sullivan and Bybee (1999) reported on an intervention program for women with abusive partners. The study involved a 10-week intervention program and a three-year follow-up, and used an experimental (intervention) and control group. At the end of the 10-week intervention period the mean
Give an example of an experiment in which using related samples would be ill-advised because taking one measurement might influence another measurement.
Some would object that the data in Exercise 7.19 are clearly discrete, though ordinal, and that it is inappropriate to run a t test on them. Can you think what might be a counter argument?(This is not an easy question, and I really ask it mostly to make the point that there could be controversy
Construct 95% confidence limits on the true mean difference between the Sexual Satisfaction scores in Exercise 7.19, and interpret them with respect to the data.
Using any available software, create a scatterplot and calculate the correlation between husband’s and wife’s sexual satisfaction in Exercise 7.19. How does this amplify what we have learned from the analysis in Exercise 7.19. (I do not discuss scatterplots and correlation until Chapter 9, but
In the study referred to in Exercise 7.19, what, if anything does your answer to that question tell us about whether couples are sexually compatible? What do we know from this analysis, and what don’t we know?
Hout, Duncan, and Sobel (1987) reported on the relative sexual satisfaction of married couples.They asked each member of 91 married couples to rate the degree to which they agreed with “Sex is fun for me and my partner” on a four-point scale ranging from 1, “never or occasionally”, to 4,
Calculate an effect size for the data in Exercise 7.16.
Construct 95% confidence limits on the true mean difference between endorphin levels at the two times described in Exercise 7.16.
Hoaglin, Mosteller, and Tukey (1983) present data on blood levels of beta-endorphin as a function of stress. They took beta-endorphin levels for 19 patients 12 hours before surgery, and again 10 minutes before surgery. The data are presented below, in fmol/ml:ID 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 hours 10.0
Calculate the 95% confidence limits for m for the data in Exercise 7.14. Are these limits consistent with your conclusion in Exercise 7.14?
Compas and others (1994) were surprised to find that young children under stress actually report fewer symptoms of anxiety and depression than we would expect. But they also noticed that their scores on a Lie Scale (a measure of the tendency to give socially desirable answers) were higher than
Katz, Lautenschlager, Blackburn, and Harris (1990) examined the performance of 28 students who answered multiple choice items on the SAT without having read the passages to which the items referred. The mean score (out of 100) was 46.6, with a standard deviation of 6.8. Random guessing would have
Compute 95% confidence limits on the weight gain in Exercise 7.11.
Everitt, in Hand et al., 1994, reported on several different therapies as treatments for anorexia.There were 29 girls in a cognitive-behavior therapy condition, and they were weighed before and after treatment. The weight gains of the girls, in pounds, are given below. The scores were obtained by
Compute 95% confidence limits on m for the data in Exercise 7.8.
The over- and underestimation of one’s performance is partly a function of the fact that if you are near the bottom you have less room to underestimate your performance than to overestimate it. The reverse holds if you are near the top. Why doesn’t that explanation account for the huge
In what way would the result in Exercise 7.2 differ if you had drawn more samples of size 5?==7.5. In what way would the result in Exercise 7.2 differ if you had drawn 50 samples of size 15?==7.6. Kruger and Dunning (1999) published a paper called “Unskilled and unaware of it,” in which they
Compare the means and the standard deviations for the distribution of digits in Exercise 7.1 and the sampling distribution of the mean in Exercise 7.2.a. What would the Central Limit Theorem lead you to expect in this situation?b. Do the data correspond to what you would predict?
I drew 50 samples of 5 scores each from the same population that the data in Exercise 7.1 came from, and calculated the mean of each sample. The means are shown below. Plot the distribution of these means.2.8 6.2 4.4 5.0 1.0 4.6 3.8 2.6 4.0 4.8 6.6 4.6 6.2 4.6 5.6 6.4 3.4 5.4 5.2 7.2 5.4 2.6 4.4
The following numbers represent 100 random numbers drawn from a rectangular population with a mean of 4.5 and a standard deviation of .2.7. Plot the distribution of these digits.6 4 8 7 8 7 0 8 2 8 5 7 4 8 2 6 9 0 2 6 4 9 0 4 9 3 4 2 8 2 0 4 1 4 7 4 1 7 4 2 4 1 4 2 8 7 9 7 3 7 4 7 3 1 6 7 1 8 7 2 7
In the text I calculated odds ratios for the data in Table 6.11. Do the same for relative risk.
Appleton, French, and Vanderpump (1996) present data that would appear to show that smoking is good for you. They assessed smoking behavior in the early 1970s and then looked at survival data 20 years later. For simplicity they restricted their data to women who were current smokers or had never
The State of Maine collected data on seat belt use and highway fatalities in 1996. (Full data are available at http://maine.gov/dps/bhs/crash-data/stats/seatbelts.html)Psychologists often study how to address self-injurious behavior, and the data shown below speak to the issue of whether seat belts
Fidalgo (2005) presented data on the relationship between bullying in the work force (Yes/No) and gender (Male/Female) of the bully. He further broke the data down by job level.The data are given below.Bullying Gender Job Category No Yes Male Female Manual 148 98 28 22 Male Female Clerical 68 144
The following data come from Ramsey and Shafer (1996) but were originally collected in conjunction with the trial of McClesky v. Zant in 1998. In that trial the defendant’s lawyers tried to demonstrate that black defendants were more likely to receive the death penalty if the victim was white
In the previous question we were concerned with whether husbands and wives rate their degree of sexual fun congruently (i.e., to the same degree). But suppose that women have different cut points on an underlying scale of “fun.” For example, maybe women’s idea of Fairly Often or Almost Always
Hout, Duncan, and Sobel (1987) reported data on the relative sexual satisfaction of married couples. They asked each member of 91 married couples to rate the degree to which they agreed with “Sex is fun for me and my partner” on a four-point scale ranging from “never or occasionally” to
The Zuckerman et al. paper referred to in the previous question hypothesized that faculty were less accurate than students because they have a tendency to give negative responses to such questions. (“There must be a trick.”) How would you design a study to test such a hypothesis?
Zuckerman, Hodgins, Zuckerman, and Rosenthal (1993) surveyed over 500 people and asked a number of questions on statistical issues. In one question a reviewer warned a researcher that she had a high probability of a Type I error because she had a small sample size. The researcher disagreed.
When we look at the variables in Mireault’s data, we will want to be sure that there are not systematic differences of which we are ignorant. For example, if we found that the gender of the parent who died was an important variable in explaining some outcome variable, we would not like to later
In a data set on this book’s Web site named Mireault.dat and described in Appendix Data Set, Mireault and Bond (1992) collected data from college students on the effects of the death of a parent. Leaving the critical variables aside for a moment, let’s look at the distribution of students. The
Many school children receive instruction on child abuse around the “good touch-bad touch”model, with the hope that such a program will reduce sexual abuse. Gibson and Leitenberg(2000) collected data from 818 college students, and recorded whether they had ever received such training and whether
In a study examining the effects of individualized care of youths with severe emotional problems, Burchard and Schaefer (1990, personal communication) proposed to have caregivers rate the presence or absence of specific behaviors for each of 40 adolescents on a given day. To check for rater
What is the odds ratio in Exercise 6.25? How would you interpret it?6.27 In the study described in Exercise 6.25, 11.5% of the Normal Testosterone group and 17.9%of the High Testosterone group had a history of childhood delinquency.a. Is there a significant relationship between these two
Dabbs and Morris (1990) examined archival data from military records to study the relationship between high testosterone levels and antisocial behavior in males. Out of 4,016 men in the Normal Testosterone group, 10.0% had a record of adult delinquency. Out of 446 men in the High Testosterone
Use SPSS or another statistical package to calculate Fisher’s Exact Test for the data in Exercise 6.11. How does it compare to the probability associated with Pearson’s chi-square?
Compute the odds ratio for Table 6.4. What does this ratio add to your understanding of the phenomenon being studied?
Compute the odds ratio for the data in Exercise 6.10. What does this value mean?
Calculate and interpret Cramér’s V and useful odds ratios for the results in Exercise 6.20.
A more complete set of data on heart attacks and aspirin, from which Table 6.7 was taken, is shown below. Here we distinguish not just between Heart Attacks and No Heart Attacks, but also between Fatal and Nonfatal attacks.Myocardial Infarction Fatal Attack Nonfatal Attack No Attack Total Placebo
The following SPSS output in Exhibit 6.2 represents that analysis of the data in Exercise 6.13.a. Verify the answer to Exercise 6.13a.b. Interpret the row and column percentages.c. What are the values labeled “Asymp. Sig.”?d. Interpret the coefficients.a. Not assuming the null hypothesis.b.
Pugh (1983) conducted a study of how jurors make decisions in rape cases. He presented 358 people with a mock rape trial. In about half of those trials the victim was presented as being partly at fault, and in the other half of the trials she was presented as not at fault. The verdicts are shown in
Suppose we asked a group of participants whether they liked Monday Night Football, then made them watch a game and asked them again. Our interest lies in whether watching a game changes people’s opinions. Out of 80 participants, 20 changed their opinion from Favorable to Unfavorable, while 5
It would be possible to calculate a one-way chi-square test on the data in row 2 of the table in Exercise 6.10. What hypothesis would you be testing if you did that? How would that hypothesis differ from the one you tested in Exercise 6.10?
Use the likelihood ratio approach to analyze the data in Exercise 6.10.
Use the likelihood ratio approach to analyze the data in Exercise 6.8.
In a study of eating disorders in adolescents, Gross (1985) asked each of her subjects whether they would prefer to gain weight, lose weight, or maintain their present weight.(Note: Only 12% of the girls in Gross’s sample were actually more than 15% above their normative weight—a common cutoff
Stress has long been known to influence physical health. Visintainer, Volpicelli, and Seligman(1982) investigated the hypothesis that rats given 60 trials of inescapable shock would be less likely later to reject an implanted tumor than would rats who had received 60 trials of escapable shock or 60
In 2000 the State of Vermont legislature approved a bill authorizing civil unions between gay or lesbian partners. This was a very contentious debate with very serious issues raised by both sides. How the vote split along gender lines may tell us something important about the different ways that
In Exercise 6.8 children were classified as those who never showed ADD behavior and those who showed ADD behavior at least once in the second, fourth, or fifth grade. If we do not collapse across categories, we obtain the following data:Never 2nd 4th 2nd &4th 5th 2nd &5th 4th &5th 2nd, 4th, &5th
Use the data in Exercise 6.8 to demonstrate how chi-square varies as a function of sample size.a. Double each cell entry and recompute chi-square.b. What does your answer to (a) say about the role of the sample size in hypothesis testing?
Howell and Huessy (1981) used a rating scale to classify children in a second-grade class as showing or not showing behavior commonly associated with attention deficit disorder(ADD). They then classified these same children again when they later were in fourth and fifth grades. When the children
In discussing the correction for continuity, we referred to the idea of fixed marginals, meaning that a replication of the study would produce the same row and/or column totals. Give an example of a study in whicha. no marginal totals are fixed.b. one set of marginal totals is fixed.c. both sets of
We know that smoking has a variety of ill effects on people; among other things, there is evidence that it affects fertility. Weinberg and Gladen (1986) examined the effects of smoking and the ease with which women become pregnant. They took 586 women who had planned pregnancies and asked how many
Combine the data from Exercises 6.3 and 6.4 into a two-way contingency table and run the appropriate test. How does the question that the two-way classification addresses differ from the questions addressed by Exercises 6.3 and 6.4?
Thirty years after the Clark and Clark study, Hraba and Grant (1970) repeated the study referred to in Exercise 6.3. The studies, though similar, were not exactly equivalent, but the results were interesting. Hraba and Grant found that out of 89 African American children, 28 chose the white doll
In a classic study by Clark and Clark (1939), African American children were shown black dolls and white dolls and were asked to select the one with which they wished to play. Out of 252 children, 169 chose the white doll and 83 chose the black doll. What can we conclude about the behavior of these
From the point of view of designing a valid experiment (as opposed to the arithmetic of calculation), there is an important difference between Exercise 6.1 and the examples used in this chapter. The data in Exercise 6.1 will not really answer the question the chairperson wants answered. What is the
The chairperson of a psychology department suspects that some of her faculty are more popular with students than are others. There are three sections of introductory psychology, taught at 10:00 a.m., 11:00 a.m., and 12:00 p.m. by Professors Anderson, Klatsky, and Kamm. The number of students who
What would happen to the answer to Exercise 5.36 if we were able to refine our test so that only 5% of women without breast cancer test positive? (In others words, we reduce the rate of false positives.)
Knowing that 80% of women with breast cancer have positive mammographies, the answer that you found in 5.36 is probably much lower than you expected. Why is it so low?
At age 40, 1% of women can be expected to have breast cancer. Of those women with breast cancer, 80% will have positive mammographies. In addition, 9.6% of women who do not have breast cancer will have a positive mammography. If a woman in this age group tests positive for breast cancer, what is
The “law of averages,” or the “gambler’s fallacy,” is the oft-quoted belief that if random events have come out one way for a number of trials they are “due” to come out the other way on one of the next few trials. (For example, it is the [mistaken] belief that if a fair coin has come
Make up a simple experiment for which a sign test would be appropriate.a. Create reasonable data and run the test.b. Draw the appropriate conclusion.
This question is not an easy one, and requires putting together material in Chapters 3, 4, and 5.Suppose we make up a driving test that we have good reason to believe should be passed by 60% of all drivers. We administer it to 30 drivers, and 22 pass it. Is the result sufficiently large to cause us
Earlier in this chapter I stated that the probability of drawing 25 blue M&M’s out of 60 draws, with replacement, was .0011. Reproduce that result. (Warning, your calculator will be computing some very large numbers, which may lead to substantial rounding error. The value of .0011 is what my
In a study of knowledge of current events, we give a 20-item true–false test to a class of college seniors. One of the not-so-alert students gets 11 answers right. Do we have any reason to believe that he has done anything other than guess?
We are designing a study in which six external electrodes will be implanted in a rat’s brain.The six-channel amplifier in our recording apparatus blew two channels when the research assistant took it home to run her stereo. How many different ways can we record from the brain? (It makes no
An ice-cream shop has six different flavors of ice cream, and you can order any combination of any number of them (but only one scoop of each flavor). How many different ice-cream cone combinations could they truthfully advertise? (We do not care if the Oreo Mint is above or below the
In a learning task, a subject is presented with five buttons. He must learn to press three specific buttons in a predetermined order. What chance does the subject have of pressing correctly on the first trial?
Refer to Exercise 5.26. Assume we have just discovered that, because of time constraints, each subject can see only two of the four classes. The rest of the experiment will remain the same, however. Now how many subjects do we need? (Warning: Do not actually try to run an experiment like this
In a study of human cognition, we want to look at recall of different classes of words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs). Each subject will see one of each. We are afraid that there may be a sequence effect, however, and want to have different subjects see the different classes in a different
Assume you are a member of a local human rights organization. How might you use what you know about probability to examine discrimination in housing?
People who sell cars are often accused of treating male and female customers differently.Make up a series of statements to illustrate simple, joint, and conditional probabilities with respect to such behavior. How might we begin to determine if those accusations are true?
Refer to Exercise 5.21. What is the minimum number of correct choices on a trial necessary for you to conclude that the subjects as a group are no longer performing at chance levels?
Refer to Exercise 5.21. What would you conclude if 6 of 10 subjects were correct on trial 2?
In a five-choice task, subjects are asked to choose the stimulus that the experimenter has arbitrarily determined to be correct; the 10 subjects can only guess on the first trial. Plot the sampling distribution of the number of correct choices on trial 1.
Using the data for Appendix Data Set scores, compare the conditional probability of dropping out of school given an ADDSC score of at least 60, which you computed in Exercise==5.18, with the unconditional probability that a person will drop out of school regardless of his or her ADDSC score.
How might you use conditional probabilities to determine if an ADDSC cutoff score of 66 in Appendix Data is predictive of whether or not a person will drop out of school?
Using the data for Appendix Data Set, what is the empirical probability that a person will drop out of school given that he or she has an ADDSC score of at least 60? Here we do not need to assume normality.
Using the file on the Web named Add.dat, described in Appendix Data Set,a. What is the probability that a male will have an ADDSC score greater than 50 if the scores are normally distributed with a mean of 54.3 and a standard deviation of 12.9?b. What percentage of the male sample actually exceeded
Using the file on the Web named Add.dat, described in Appendix Data Set,a. What is the probability that a person drawn at random will have an ADDSC score greater than 50 if the scores are normally distributed with a mean of 52.6 and a standard deviation of 12.4?b. What percentage of the sample
A graduate-admissions committee has finally come to realize that it cannot make valid distinctions among the top applicants. This year, the committee rated all 300 applicants and randomly chose 10 from those in the top 20%. What is the probability that any particular applicant will be admitted
Give two examples of discrete variables.
Give an example of a continuous variable that we routinely treat as if it were discrete.
Give an example of a common continuous distribution for which we have some real interest in the probability that an observation will fall within some specified interval.
Suppose that we have a study of messages printed on supermarket fliers. We want to know if what people do with fliers is independent of the message that is on them. If the message has no effect on a shopper’s behavior, the probability that a flier carrying a “do not litter” message would end
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