A 30 kg male emperor penguin under a clear sky in the Antarctic winter loses very little heat to the environment by convection; its feathers provide very good insulation. It does lose some heat through its feet to the ice, and some heat due to evaporation as it breathes; the combined power is about 12 W. The outside of the penguin’s body is a chilly −22°C, but its surroundings are an even chillier −38°C. The penguin’s surface area is 0.56 m², and its emissivity is 0.97.

a. What is the net rate of energy loss by radiation?

b. If the penguin has a 45 W basal metabolic rate, will it feel warm or cold under these circumstances?