Using Python create the following codes

2. Using the AutoPipe.csv file, create a key - value dictionary using the model as the key and make as the value. (what would be the problem with a make -> model relationship?

3. Using the AutoPipe.csv file, create a display uses the make as a key and shows a graph based on the number of cars by each make.

4. Using the JohnAdams.txt file, create a dictionary that produces a count for each letter in the document

Autopipe.csv mpg|cylinders|displacement|horsepower|weight|acceleration|year|origin|name 18|8|307|130|3504|12|70|1|chevrolet chevelle malibu 15|8|350|165|3693|11.5|70|1|buick skylark 320 18|8|318|150|3436|11|70|1|plymouth satellite 16|8|304|150|3433|12|70|1|amc rebel sst 17|8|302|140|3449|10.5|70|1|ford torino 15|8|429|198|4341|10|70|1|ford galaxie 500 14|8|454|220|4354|9|70|1|chevrolet impala 14|8|440|215|4312|8.5|70|1|plymouth fury iii 14|8|455|225|4425|10|70|1|pontiac catalina 15|8|390|190|3850|8.5|70|1|amc ambassador dpl 15|8|383|170|3563|10|70|1|dodge challenger se 14|8|340|160|3609|8|70|1|plymouth 'cuda 340 15|8|400|150|3761|9.5|70|1|chevrolet monte carlo 14|8|455|225|3086|10|70|1|buick estate wagon (sw) 24|4|113|95|2372|15|70|3|toyota corona mark ii 22|6|198|95|2833|15.5|70|1|plymouth duster 18|6|199|97|2774|15.5|70|1|amc hornet 21|6|200|85|2587|16|70|1|ford maverick 27|4|97|88|2130|14.5|70|3|datsun pl510 26|4|97|46|1835|20.5|70|2|volkswagen 1131 deluxe sedan 25|4|110|87|2672|17.5|70|2|peugeot 504 24|4|107|90|2430|14.5|70|2|audi 100 ls 25|4|104|95|2375|17.5|70|2|saab 99e 26|4|121|113|2234|12.5|70|2|bmw 2002 21|6|199|90|2648|15|70|1|amc gremlin 10|8|360|215|4615|14|70|1|ford f250 10|8|307|200|4376|15|70|1|chevy c20 11|8|318|210|4382|13.5|70|1|dodge d200 9|8|304|193|4732|18.5|70|1|hi 1200d 27|4|97|88|2130|14.5|71|3|datsun pl510 28|4|140|90|2264|15.5|71|1|chevrolet vega 2300 25|4|113|95|2228|14|71|3|toyota corona 25|4|98|?|2046|19|71|1|ford pinto 19|6|232|100|2634|13|71|1|amc gremlin 16|6|225|105|3439|15.5|71|1|plymouth satellite custom 17|6|250|100|3329|15.5|71|1|chevrolet chevelle malibu 19|6|250|88|3302|15.5|71|1|ford torino 500 18|6|232|100|3288|15.5|71|1|amc matador 14|8|350|165|4209|12|71|1|chevrolet impala 14|8|400|175|4464|11.5|71|1|pontiac catalina brougham 14|8|351|153|4154|13.5|71|1|ford galaxie 500 14|8|318|150|4096|13|71|1|plymouth fury iii 12|8|383|180|4955|11.5|71|1|dodge monaco (sw) 13|8|400|170|4746|12|71|1|ford country squire (sw) 13|8|400|175|5140|12|71|1|pontiac safari (sw) 18|6|258|110|2962|13.5|71|1|amc hornet sportabout (sw) 22|4|140|72|2408|19|71|1|chevrolet vega (sw) 19|6|250|100|3282|15|71|1|pontiac firebird 18|6|250|88|3139|14.5|71|1|ford mustang 23|4|122|86|2220|14|71|1|mercury capri 2000 28|4|116|90|2123|14|71|2|opel 1900 30|4|79|70|2074|19.5|71|2|peugeot 304 30|4|88|76|2065|14.5|71|2|fiat 124b 31|4|71|65|1773|19|71|3|toyota corolla 1200 35|4|72|69|1613|18|71|3|datsun 1200 27|4|97|60|1834|19|71|2|volkswagen model 111 26|4|91|70|1955|20.5|71|1|plymouth cricket 24|4|113|95|2278|15.5|72|3|toyota corona hardtop 25|4|97.5|80|2126|17|72|1|dodge colt hardtop 23|4|97|54|2254|23.5|72|2|volkswagen type 3 20|4|140|90|2408|19.5|72|1|chevrolet vega 21|4|122|86|2226|16.5|72|1|ford pinto runabout 13|8|350|165|4274|12|72|1|chevrolet impala 14|8|400|175|4385|12|72|1|pontiac catalina 15|8|318|150|4135|13.5|72|1|plymouth fury iii 14|8|351|153|4129|13|72|1|ford galaxie 500 17|8|304|150|3672|11.5|72|1|amc ambassador sst 11|8|429|208|4633|11|72|1|mercury marquis 13|8|350|155|4502|13.5|72|1|buick lesabre custom 12|8|350|160|4456|13.5|72|1|oldsmobile delta 88 royale 13|8|400|190|4422|12.5|72|1|chrysler newport royal 19|3|70|97|2330|13.5|72|3|mazda rx2 coupe 15|8|304|150|3892|12.5|72|1|amc matador (sw) 13|8|307|130|4098|14|72|1|chevrolet chevelle concours (sw) 13|8|302|140|4294|16|72|1|ford gran torino (sw) 14|8|318|150|4077|14|72|1|plymouth satellite custom (sw) 18|4|121|112|2933|14.5|72|2|volvo 145e (sw) 22|4|121|76|2511|18|72|2|volkswagen 411 (sw) 21|4|120|87|2979|19.5|72|2|peugeot 504 (sw) 26|4|96|69|2189|18|72|2|renault 12 (sw) 22|4|122|86|2395|16|72|1|ford pinto (sw) 28|4|97|92|2288|17|72|3|datsun 510 (sw) 23|4|120|97|2506|14.5|72|3|toyouta corona mark ii (sw) 28|4|98|80|2164|15|72|1|dodge colt (sw) 27|4|97|88|2100|16.5|72|3|toyota corolla 1600 (sw) 13|8|350|175|4100|13|73|1|buick century 350 14|8|304|150|3672|11.5|73|1|amc matador 13|8|350|145|3988|13|73|1|chevrolet malibu 14|8|302|137|4042|14.5|73|1|ford gran torino 15|8|318|150|3777|12.5|73|1|dodge coronet custom 12|8|429|198|4952|11.5|73|1|mercury marquis brougham 13|8|400|150|4464|12|73|1|chevrolet caprice classic 13|8|351|158|4363|13|73|1|ford ltd 14|8|318|150|4237|14.5|73|1|plymouth fury gran sedan 13|8|440|215|4735|11|73|1|chrysler new yorker brougham 12|8|455|225|4951|11|73|1|buick electra 225 custom 13|8|360|175|3821|11|73|1|amc ambassador brougham 18|6|225|105|3121|16.5|73|1|plymouth valiant 16|6|250|100|3278|18|73|1|chevrolet nova custom 18|6|232|100|2945|16|73|1|amc hornet 18|6|250|88|3021|16.5|73|1|ford maverick 23|6|198|95|2904|16|73|1|plymouth duster 26|4|97|46|1950|21|73|2|volkswagen super beetle 11|8|400|150|4997|14|73|1|chevrolet impala 12|8|400|167|4906|12.5|73|1|ford country 13|8|360|170|4654|13|73|1|plymouth custom suburb 12|8|350|180|4499|12.5|73|1|oldsmobile vista cruiser 18|6|232|100|2789|15|73|1|amc gremlin 20|4|97|88|2279|19|73|3|toyota carina 21|4|140|72|2401|19.5|73|1|chevrolet vega 22|4|108|94|2379|16.5|73|3|datsun 610 18|3|70|90|2124|13.5|73|3|maxda rx3 19|4|122|85|2310|18.5|73|1|ford pinto 21|6|155|107|2472|14|73|1|mercury capri v6 26|4|98|90|2265|15.5|73|2|fiat 124 sport coupe 15|8|350|145|4082|13|73|1|chevrolet monte carlo s 16|8|400|230|4278|9.5|73|1|pontiac grand prix 29|4|68|49|1867|19.5|73|2|fiat 128 24|4|116|75|2158|15.5|73|2|opel manta 20|4|114|91|2582|14|73|2|audi 100ls 19|4|121|112|2868|15.5|73|2|volvo 144ea 15|8|318|150|3399|11|73|1|dodge dart custom 24|4|121|110|2660|14|73|2|saab 99le 20|6|156|122|2807|13.5|73|3|toyota mark ii 11|8|350|180|3664|11|73|1|oldsmobile omega 20|6|198|95|3102|16.5|74|1|plymouth duster 21|6|200|?|2875|17|74|1|ford maverick 19|6|232|100|2901|16|74|1|amc hornet 15|6|250|100|3336|17|74|1|chevrolet nova 31|4|79|67|1950|19|74|3|datsun b210 26|4|122|80|2451|16.5|74|1|ford pinto 32|4|71|65|1836|21|74|3|toyota corolla 1200 25|4|140|75|2542|17|74|1|chevrolet vega 16|6|250|100|3781|17|74|1|chevrolet chevelle malibu classic 16|6|258|110|3632|18|74|1|amc matador 18|6|225|105|3613|16.5|74|1|plymouth satellite sebring 16|8|302|140|4141|14|74|1|ford gran torino 13|8|350|150|4699|14.5|74|1|buick century luxus (sw) 14|8|318|150|4457|13.5|74|1|dodge coronet custom (sw) 14|8|302|140|4638|16|74|1|ford gran torino (sw) 14|8|304|150|4257|15.5|74|1|amc matador (sw) 29|4|98|83|2219|16.5|74|2|audi fox 26|4|79|67|1963|15.5|74|2|volkswagen dasher 26|4|97|78|2300|14.5|74|2|opel manta 31|4|76|52|1649|16.5|74|3|toyota corona 32|4|83|61|2003|19|74|3|datsun 710 28|4|90|75|2125|14.5|74|1|dodge colt 24|4|90|75|2108|15.5|74|2|fiat 128 26|4|116|75|2246|14|74|2|fiat 124 tc 24|4|120|97|2489|15|74|3|honda civic 26|4|108|93|2391|15.5|74|3|subaru 31|4|79|67|2000|16|74|2|fiat x1.9 19|6|225|95|3264|16|75|1|plymouth valiant custom 18|6|250|105|3459|16|75|1|chevrolet nova 15|6|250|72|3432|21|75|1|mercury monarch 15|6|250|72|3158|19.5|75|1|ford maverick 16|8|400|170|4668|11.5|75|1|pontiac catalina 15|8|350|145|4440|14|75|1|chevrolet bel air 16|8|318|150|4498|14.5|75|1|plymouth grand fury 14|8|351|148|4657|13.5|75|1|ford ltd 17|6|231|110|3907|21|75|1|buick century 16|6|250|105|3897|18.5|75|1|chevroelt chevelle malibu 15|6|258|110|3730|19|75|1|amc matador 18|6|225|95|3785|19|75|1|plymouth fury 21|6|231|110|3039|15|75|1|buick skyhawk 20|8|262|110|3221|13.5|75|1|chevrolet monza 2+2 13|8|302|129|3169|12|75|1|ford mustang ii 29|4|97|75|2171|16|75|3|toyota corolla 23|4|140|83|2639|17|75|1|ford pinto 20|6|232|100|2914|16|75|1|amc gremlin 23|4|140|78|2592|18.5|75|1|pontiac astro 24|4|134|96|2702|13.5|75|3|toyota corona 25|4|90|71|2223|16.5|75|2|volkswagen dasher 24|4|119|97|2545|17|75|3|datsun 710 18|6|171|97|2984|14.5|75|1|ford pinto 29|4|90|70|1937|14|75|2|volkswagen rabbit 19|6|232|90|3211|17|75|1|amc pacer 23|4|115|95|2694|15|75|2|audi 100ls 23|4|120|88|2957|17|75|2|peugeot 504 22|4|121|98|2945|14.5|75|2|volvo 244dl 25|4|121|115|2671|13.5|75|2|saab 99le 33|4|91|53|1795|17.5|75|3|honda civic cvcc 28|4|107|86|2464|15.5|76|2|fiat 131 25|4|116|81|2220|16.9|76|2|opel 1900 25|4|140|92|2572|14.9|76|1|capri ii 26|4|98|79|2255|17.7|76|1|dodge colt 27|4|101|83|2202|15.3|76|2|renault 12tl 17.5|8|305|140|4215|13|76|1|chevrolet chevelle malibu classic 16|8|318|150|4190|13|76|1|dodge coronet brougham 15.5|8|304|120|3962|13.9|76|1|amc matador 14.5|8|351|152|4215|12.8|76|1|ford gran torino 22|6|225|100|3233|15.4|76|1|plymouth valiant 22|6|250|105|3353|14.5|76|1|chevrolet nova 24|6|200|81|3012|17.6|76|1|ford maverick 22.5|6|232|90|3085|17.6|76|1|amc hornet 29|4|85|52|2035|22.2|76|1|chevrolet chevette 24.5|4|98|60|2164|22.1|76|1|chevrolet woody 29|4|90|70|1937|14.2|76|2|vw rabbit 33|4|91|53|1795|17.4|76|3|honda civic 20|6|225|100|3651|17.7|76|1|dodge aspen se 18|6|250|78|3574|21|76|1|ford granada ghia 18.5|6|250|110|3645|16.2|76|1|pontiac ventura sj 17.5|6|258|95|3193|17.8|76|1|amc pacer d/l 29.5|4|97|71|1825|12.2|76|2|volkswagen rabbit 32|4|85|70|1990|17|76|3|datsun b-210 28|4|97|75|2155|16.4|76|3|toyota corolla 26.5|4|140|72|2565|13.6|76|1|ford pinto 20|4|130|102|3150|15.7|76|2|volvo 245 13|8|318|150|3940|13.2|76|1|plymouth volare premier v8 19|4|120|88|3270|21.9|76|2|peugeot 504 19|6|156|108|2930|15.5|76|3|toyota mark ii 16.5|6|168|120|3820|16.7|76|2|mercedes-benz 280s 16.5|8|350|180|4380|12.1|76|1|cadillac seville 13|8|350|145|4055|12|76|1|chevy c10 13|8|302|130|3870|15|76|1|ford f108 13|8|318|150|3755|14|76|1|dodge d100 31.5|4|98|68|2045|18.5|77|3|honda accord cvcc 30|4|111|80|2155|14.8|77|1|buick opel isuzu deluxe 36|4|79|58|1825|18.6|77|2|renault 5 gtl 25.5|4|122|96|2300|15.5|77|1|plymouth arrow gs 33.5|4|85|70|1945|16.8|77|3|datsun f-10 hatchback 17.5|8|305|145|3880|12.5|77|1|chevrolet caprice classic 17|8|260|110|4060|19|77|1|oldsmobile cutlass supreme 15.5|8|318|145|4140|13.7|77|1|dodge monaco brougham 15|8|302|130|4295|14.9|77|1|mercury cougar brougham 17.5|6|250|110|3520|16.4|77|1|chevrolet concours 20.5|6|231|105|3425|16.9|77|1|buick skylark 19|6|225|100|3630|17.7|77|1|plymouth volare custom 18.5|6|250|98|3525|19|77|1|ford granada 16|8|400|180|4220|11.1|77|1|pontiac grand prix lj 15.5|8|350|170|4165|11.4|77|1|chevrolet monte carlo landau 15.5|8|400|190|4325|12.2|77|1|chrysler cordoba 16|8|351|149|4335|14.5|77|1|ford thunderbird 29|4|97|78|1940|14.5|77|2|volkswagen rabbit custom 24.5|4|151|88|2740|16|77|1|pontiac sunbird coupe 26|4|97|75|2265|18.2|77|3|toyota corolla liftback 25.5|4|140|89|2755|15.8|77|1|ford mustang ii 2+2 30.5|4|98|63|2051|17|77|1|chevrolet chevette 33.5|4|98|83|2075|15.9|77|1|dodge colt m/m 30|4|97|67|1985|16.4|77|3|subaru dl 30.5|4|97|78|2190|14.1|77|2|volkswagen dasher 22|6|146|97|2815|14.5|77|3|datsun 810 21.5|4|121|110|2600|12.8|77|2|bmw 320i 21.5|3|80|110|2720|13.5|77|3|mazda rx-4 43.1|4|90|48|1985|21.5|78|2|volkswagen rabbit custom diesel 36.1|4|98|66|1800|14.4|78|1|ford fiesta 32.8|4|78|52|1985|19.4|78|3|mazda glc deluxe 39.4|4|85|70|2070|18.6|78|3|datsun b210 gx 36.1|4|91|60|1800|16.4|78|3|honda civic cvcc 19.9|8|260|110|3365|15.5|78|1|oldsmobile cutlass salon brougham 19.4|8|318|140|3735|13.2|78|1|dodge diplomat 20.2|8|302|139|3570|12.8|78|1|mercury monarch ghia 19.2|6|231|105|3535|19.2|78|1|pontiac phoenix lj 20.5|6|200|95|3155|18.2|78|1|chevrolet malibu 20.2|6|200|85|2965|15.8|78|1|ford fairmont (auto) 25.1|4|140|88|2720|15.4|78|1|ford fairmont (man) 20.5|6|225|100|3430|17.2|78|1|plymouth volare 19.4|6|232|90|3210|17.2|78|1|amc concord 20.6|6|231|105|3380|15.8|78|1|buick century special 20.8|6|200|85|3070|16.7|78|1|mercury zephyr 18.6|6|225|110|3620|18.7|78|1|dodge aspen 18.1|6|258|120|3410|15.1|78|1|amc concord d/l 19.2|8|305|145|3425|13.2|78|1|chevrolet monte carlo landau 17.7|6|231|165|3445|13.4|78|1|buick regal sport coupe (turbo) 18.1|8|302|139|3205|11.2|78|1|ford futura 17.5|8|318|140|4080|13.7|78|1|dodge magnum xe 30|4|98|68|2155|16.5|78|1|chevrolet chevette 27.5|4|134|95|2560|14.2|78|3|toyota corona 27.2|4|119|97|2300|14.7|78|3|datsun 510 30.9|4|105|75|2230|14.5|78|1|dodge omni 21.1|4|134|95|2515|14.8|78|3|toyota celica gt liftback 23.2|4|156|105|2745|16.7|78|1|plymouth sapporo 23.8|4|151|85|2855|17.6|78|1|oldsmobile starfire sx 23.9|4|119|97|2405|14.9|78|3|datsun 200-sx 20.3|5|131|103|2830|15.9|78|2|audi 5000 17|6|163|125|3140|13.6|78|2|volvo 264gl 21.6|4|121|115|2795|15.7|78|2|saab 99gle 16.2|6|163|133|3410|15.8|78|2|peugeot 604sl 31.5|4|89|71|1990|14.9|78|2|volkswagen scirocco 29.5|4|98|68|2135|16.6|78|3|honda accord lx 21.5|6|231|115|3245|15.4|79|1|pontiac lemans v6 19.8|6|200|85|2990|18.2|79|1|mercury zephyr 6 22.3|4|140|88|2890|17.3|79|1|ford fairmont 4 20.2|6|232|90|3265|18.2|79|1|amc concord dl 6 20.6|6|225|110|3360|16.6|79|1|dodge aspen 6 17|8|305|130|3840|15.4|79|1|chevrolet caprice classic 17.6|8|302|129|3725|13.4|79|1|ford ltd landau 16.5|8|351|138|3955|13.2|79|1|mercury grand marquis 18.2|8|318|135|3830|15.2|79|1|dodge st. regis 16.9|8|350|155|4360|14.9|79|1|buick estate wagon (sw) 15.5|8|351|142|4054|14.3|79|1|ford country squire (sw) 19.2|8|267|125|3605|15|79|1|chevrolet malibu classic (sw) 18.5|8|360|150|3940|13|79|1|chrysler lebaron town @ country (sw) 31.9|4|89|71|1925|14|79|2|vw rabbit custom 34.1|4|86|65|1975|15.2|79|3|maxda glc deluxe 35.7|4|98|80|1915|14.4|79|1|dodge colt hatchback custom 27.4|4|121|80|2670|15|79|1|amc spirit dl 25.4|5|183|77|3530|20.1|79|2|mercedes benz 300d 23|8|350|125|3900|17.4|79|1|cadillac eldorado 27.2|4|141|71|3190|24.8|79|2|peugeot 504 23.9|8|260|90|3420|22.2|79|1|oldsmobile cutlass salon brougham 34.2|4|105|70|2200|13.2|79|1|plymouth horizon 34.5|4|105|70|2150|14.9|79|1|plymouth horizon tc3 31.8|4|85|65|2020|19.2|79|3|datsun 210 37.3|4|91|69|2130|14.7|79|2|fiat strada custom 28.4|4|151|90|2670|16|79|1|buick skylark limited 28.8|6|173|115|2595|11.3|79|1|chevrolet citation 26.8|6|173|115|2700|12.9|79|1|oldsmobile omega brougham 33.5|4|151|90|2556|13.2|79|1|pontiac phoenix 41.5|4|98|76|2144|14.7|80|2|vw rabbit 38.1|4|89|60|1968|18.8|80|3|toyota corolla tercel 32.1|4|98|70|2120|15.5|80|1|chevrolet chevette 37.2|4|86|65|2019|16.4|80|3|datsun 310 28|4|151|90|2678|16.5|80|1|chevrolet citation 26.4|4|140|88|2870|18.1|80|1|ford fairmont 24.3|4|151|90|3003|20.1|80|1|amc concord 19.1|6|225|90|3381|18.7|80|1|dodge aspen 34.3|4|97|78|2188|15.8|80|2|audi 4000 29.8|4|134|90|2711|15.5|80|3|toyota corona liftback 31.3|4|120|75|2542|17.5|80|3|mazda 626 37|4|119|92|2434|15|80|3|datsun 510 hatchback 32.2|4|108|75|2265|15.2|80|3|toyota corolla 46.6|4|86|65|2110|17.9|80|3|mazda glc 27.9|4|156|105|2800|14.4|80|1|dodge colt 40.8|4|85|65|2110|19.2|80|3|datsun 210 44.3|4|90|48|2085|21.7|80|2|vw rabbit c (diesel) 43.4|4|90|48|2335|23.7|80|2|vw dasher (diesel) 36.4|5|121|67|2950|19.9|80|2|audi 5000s (diesel) 30|4|146|67|3250|21.8|80|2|mercedes-benz 240d 44.6|4|91|67|1850|13.8|80|3|honda civic 1500 gl 40.9|4|85|?|1835|17.3|80|2|renault lecar deluxe 33.8|4|97|67|2145|18|80|3|subaru dl 29.8|4|89|62|1845|15.3|80|2|vokswagen rabbit 32.7|6|168|132|2910|11.4|80|3|datsun 280-zx 23.7|3|70|100|2420|12.5|80|3|mazda rx-7 gs 35|4|122|88|2500|15.1|80|2|triumph tr7 coupe 23.6|4|140|?|2905|14.3|80|1|ford mustang cobra 32.4|4|107|72|2290|17|80|3|honda accord 27.2|4|135|84|2490|15.7|81|1|plymouth reliant 26.6|4|151|84|2635|16.4|81|1|buick skylark 25.8|4|156|92|2620|14.4|81|1|dodge aries wagon (sw) 23.5|6|173|110|2725|12.6|81|1|chevrolet citation 30|4|135|84|2385|12.9|81|1|plymouth reliant 39.1|4|79|58|1755|16.9|81|3|toyota starlet 39|4|86|64|1875|16.4|81|1|plymouth champ 35.1|4|81|60|1760|16.1|81|3|honda civic 1300 32.3|4|97|67|2065|17.8|81|3|subaru 37|4|85|65|1975|19.4|81|3|datsun 210 mpg 37.7|4|89|62|2050|17.3|81|3|toyota tercel 34.1|4|91|68|1985|16|81|3|mazda glc 4 34.7|4|105|63|2215|14.9|81|1|plymouth horizon 4 34.4|4|98|65|2045|16.2|81|1|ford escort 4w 29.9|4|98|65|2380|20.7|81|1|ford escort 2h 33|4|105|74|2190|14.2|81|2|volkswagen jetta 34.5|4|100|?|2320|15.8|81|2|renault 18i 33.7|4|107|75|2210|14.4|81|3|honda prelude 32.4|4|108|75|2350|16.8|81|3|toyota corolla 32.9|4|119|100|2615|14.8|81|3|datsun 200sx 31.6|4|120|74|2635|18.3|81|3|mazda 626 28.1|4|141|80|3230|20.4|81|2|peugeot 505s turbo diesel 30.7|6|145|76|3160|19.6|81|2|volvo diesel 25.4|6|168|116|2900|12.6|81|3|toyota cressida 24.2|6|146|120|2930|13.8|81|3|datsun 810 maxima 22.4|6|231|110|3415|15.8|81|1|buick century 26.6|8|350|105|3725|19|81|1|oldsmobile cutlass ls 20.2|6|200|88|3060|17.1|81|1|ford granada gl 17.6|6|225|85|3465|16.6|81|1|chrysler lebaron salon 28|4|112|88|2605|19.6|82|1|chevrolet cavalier 27|4|112|88|2640|18.6|82|1|chevrolet cavalier wagon 34|4|112|88|2395|18|82|1|chevrolet cavalier 2-door 31|4|112|85|2575|16.2|82|1|pontiac j2000 se hatchback 29|4|135|84|2525|16|82|1|dodge aries se 27|4|151|90|2735|18|82|1|pontiac phoenix 24|4|140|92|2865|16.4|82|1|ford fairmont futura 36|4|105|74|1980|15.3|82|2|volkswagen rabbit l 37|4|91|68|2025|18.2|82|3|mazda glc custom l 31|4|91|68|1970|17.6|82|3|mazda glc custom 38|4|105|63|2125|14.7|82|1|plymouth horizon miser 36|4|98|70|2125|17.3|82|1|mercury lynx l 36|4|120|88|2160|14.5|82|3|nissan stanza xe 36|4|107|75|2205|14.5|82|3|honda accord 34|4|108|70|2245|16.9|82|3|toyota corolla 38|4|91|67|1965|15|82|3|honda civic 32|4|91|67|1965|15.7|82|3|honda civic (auto) 38|4|91|67|1995|16.2|82|3|datsun 310 gx 25|6|181|110|2945|16.4|82|1|buick century limited 38|6|262|85|3015|17|82|1|oldsmobile cutlass ciera (diesel) 26|4|156|92|2585|14.5|82|1|chrysler lebaron medallion 22|6|232|112|2835|14.7|82|1|ford granada l 32|4|144|96|2665|13.9|82|3|toyota celica gt 36|4|135|84|2370|13|82|1|dodge charger 2.2 27|4|151|90|2950|17.3|82|1|chevrolet camaro 27|4|140|86|2790|15.6|82|1|ford mustang gl 44|4|97|52|2130|24.6|82|2|vw pickup 32|4|135|84|2295|11.6|82|1|dodge rampage 28|4|120|79|2625|18.6|82|1|ford ranger 31|4|119|82|2720|19.4|82|1|chevy s-10 John Adams text A DEFENCE OF THE CONSTITUTIONS OF GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Volume II? CHAPTER FIRST.: ITALIAN REPUBLICS OF THE MIDDLE AGE. FLORENCE.? There is no example of a government simply democratical; yet there are many of forms nearly or remotely resembling what are understood by All Authority in one Centre. There once existed a cluster of governments, now generally known by the name of the Italian Republics of the Middle Age,* which deserve the attention of Americans, and will further illustrate and confirm the principles we have endeavored to maintain. If it appears, from the history of all the ancient republics of Greece, Italy, and Asia Minor, as well as from those that still remain in Switzerland, Italy, and elsewhere, that caprice, instability, turbulence, revolutions, and the alternate prevalence of those two plagues and [6] scourges of mankind, tyranny and anarchy, were the effects of governments without three orders and a balance, the same important truth will appear, in a still clearer light, in the republics of Italy. The sketches to be given of these cannot be introduced with more propriety than by the sentiments of a late writer,* because they coincide with every thing that has been before observed. Limited monarchies were the ancient governments; the jealousies and errors of the nobles, or the oppressions they suffered, stimulated them to render monarchy unpopular, and erect aristocracies. Ancient nations were, in one point, very generally defective in their constitutions, and that was the incertitude of the sovereignty, and, by consequence, the instability of government; which was, in all the republics of Italy, a perpetual occasion of infinite confusion. In no part of Italy, however united together, was found established an absolute hereditary monarch. By many examples, it is manifest, that kings either were created by the favor of the multitude, or at least sought their consent, and consulted the people in affairs of most importance and greatest danger. The government of the grandees, which succeeded, was rather a fraudulent or violent usurpation, than a true and proper aristocracy established by law, or confirmed by long and uncontested possession; and a popular government was never so free or so durable as when it was mixed with the authority of one supreme head, or of a senate; so that mixed governments were almost always preferred. One of the three kinds of governments nevertheless fell, when another arose; and all the Italian republics, nearly at one time, by the same gradations, passed from one form of administration to another. In this particular all the memorials of ancient Italy agree. They were, from the beginning, governed by kings. The Tuscans had kings; the Sabines had kings; and so had the people of Latium; and as every city and every borough formed an independent government, these kings could not have much magnificence. Many states often obeyed the same king; for he who had the lordship of one city, procured himself to be elected the head of another. Porsenna, whom Dionysius calls King of Tuscany, because he was followed by many Tuscan nations, was [7] from the beginning only King of Chiusi. The Kings of Rome, by various means, gained the command of the Latin cities, which nevertheless, two centuries afterwards, reputed themselves still independent of the state of Rome. The King of the Veientes had the lordship of Fidena, a free city, and independent of the Veientes, in the same manner as the Visconti, Lords of Milan, Castruccio, Lord of Lucca, and the Scala, Lords of Verona, (and so many other princes and tyrants of the later ages, before the exaltation of Charles V.) made such progress in obtaining the sovereignty of many cities, which had nothing in common with Milan, or Lucca, or Verona. These kingdoms were either simply elective, or at least required the express consent of the people, howsoever often one relation succeeded to another. Neither were royal governments generally displeasing to the people; but the grandees and nobles, who were the most exposed to the caprice of the prince, both in their persons and property, studied to generate in the minds of the common people a hatred to the name of king, and to excite the desire of liberty. They flattered themselves, that if the principality, which often fell into the hands of new men and adventurers, such as Tarquin in Rome, and Aristodemus in Cuma, were abolished, they should be able to live, not only with more security and greater license, but with more authority, command, and power. In what nation, and in which city, the revolution first began, is not easy to determine; but in the course of the third century of the Roman era, one people following the example of another, this by means of one, and that of another opportunity, either expelled by violence their present kings, or desisted from electing new ones; and all Italy, hoisting as it were a common signal, changed at once its whole form of government. The odium of the royal name, and an enthusiasm for liberty, seized so universally, and with such energy, the whole Italian nation, that if any city wished either to continue or recover the custom of kings, this inclination was scarcely manifested before it was pointed out and reviled by the other cities, and upon all great occasions abandoned. The Veientes,* either from a disgust at the cabals and ambition which arose from the annual creation of new magistrates, or the better to provide for war, created afresh [8] a king; by which resolution they incurred to such a degree the hatred and contempt of the other people of Tuscany, that, contrary to every rule of policy, duty, and custom, they were left alone to sustain that obstinate war with the Romans, which ended in their ruin. In the beginning of the fourth century of the Roman history, there is seldom or never mention made of kings in any of the states of Italy. The whole authority and administration of public affairs passed into the hands of the nobility, or the senate; and that body, constituting at first the middle order between the king and the people, became the supreme head of the government. And although the greater magistracies were elected by the voices or suffrages of the people, nevertheless, all the honors and all the power of the government were collected in the grandees, who easily commanded the votes of the electors, and who alone were the elected; for none of the plebeians dared to pretend to offices, civil or military. And it is too evident that, in every kind of community, the rich and the noble endeavor, as it were, by their very nature, to exclude the poor and the plebeians. Most of the public affairs relative to peace or war were treated in a senate composed essentially of patricians and nobles, who, in every thing that regarded the constitution, inclined more to aristocracy than to popular government. No city was so mean or so ill ordered as not to have a public council, or a senate. Livy speaks of the senate, not only of Naples, Capua, and Cuma, but of Nola, Pipernum, Tusculum, Tivoli, the Veientes, and of others, so frequently, that it is clear that in all the republics there was an order distinct from the plebeians, who retained in their hands the essence of the government. But the plebeians, once become obstinate, at the solicitation of the nobility, in a hatred of tyranny, had not far to go before they opened their eyes upon their own condition, and learned that they had done nothing more than exchange one master for many; and they began to make every exertion to obtain, in fact, the possession of that liberty, of which they had, until then, obtained a taste in words, from the order of patricians and the senate. As the multitude began to make trial of their strength, the sovereign authority was ceded to them by little and little, and the nobility, in their turn, were tormented and tyrannized by the plebeians. Livy observes, that, about the time of the Carthaginian war, by a kind of epidemical malady spread [9] through the Italian republics, the plebeians applied themselves to persecute the nobility. Nevertheless, the order of the grandees always preserved a great part of the power; for the nature of popular government being variable, inconstant, and incapable of conducting itself, the senate and the nobility, who act with more maturity of deliberation, and with interests more united, can generally counterpoise the party of the plebeians, and from time to time overcome it. From whence it happened, that all the cities were exposed to continual revolutions of government, and very rarely enjoyed that perfect equality, which is the end of a free state; but either the favor of the people, or the necessity of the senate, devolved the principal authority on some individual, who, with or without the title of supreme magistrate, was always regarded as the head of the government. Thus we find a Manilius, head of the Latins; an Accius Tullius, principal of the Volsci; a Herennius, of the Samnites; a Calavius, of the Campanians; a Valerius, a Camillus, and a Fabius, chiefs of the Romans. And, to speak the truth, there was never any great and important success in any free state, either at home or abroad, except in those times when some one citizen held the will of the public in his own power. But, waving the rest of these general observations for the present, let us descend to particulars, and, quitting the ancient republics of Italy, descend to those of the middle age, among which Florence is the most illustrious. As the history of that noble city and magnanimous people has been written by two authors, among a multitude of others, who may be compared to any of the historians of Greece or Rome, we have here an example more fully delineated, an experiment more perfectly made and more accurately described, than any we have examined before. We shall not, therefore, find it tedious to consider minutely the affairs of a brave and enlightened people, to whom the world is indebted for a Machiavel, a Guicciardini, and an Americus Vespucius; in a great degree for the resurrection of letters, and a second civilization of mankind. Next to Athens and Rome, there has not existed a more interesting city. The history is full of lessons of wisdom, extremely to our purpose. We have all along contended, that the predominant passion of all men in power, whether kings, nobles, or plebeians, is the same; that tyranny will be the effect, whoever are the governors, [10] whether the one, the few, or the many, if uncontrolled by equal laws, made by common consent, and supported, protected, and enforced by three different orders of men in equilibrio. In Florence, where the administration was, by turns, in the nobles, the grandees, the commons, the plebeians, the mob, the ruling passion of each was the same; and the government of each immediately degenerated into a tyranny so insupportable as to produce a fresh revolution. We have all along contended, that a simple government, in a single assembly, whether aristocratical or democratical, must of necessity divide into two parties, each of which will be headed by some one illustrious family, and will proceed from debate and controversy to sedition and war. In Florence, the first dissension was among the nobility; the second between the nobles and commons; and the third between the commons and plebeians. In each of which contests, as soon as one party got uppermost, it split into two; and executions, confiscations, banishments, assassinations, and dispersions of families, were the fruit of every division, even with more atrocious aggravations than in those of Greece. Having no third order to appeal to for decision, no contest could be decided but by the sword. It will enable us the better to understand Machiavel, whose history will be abridged and commented on, if we premise from Nardi,* that the city of Florence had, like all other cities, its people consisting of three genera of inhabitants, that is to say, the nobility, the people of property, and the common people. Although some too diligently divided the nobility into three sorts, calling the first, nobles, the second, grandees, and the third, families; meaning to signify, that some of the inhabitants had come into the city and become citizens, having been deprived of their own proper country by conquest, while they were attempting to enlarge and extend their territories; others, originally of this country, had become abundant in riches and powerful in dependents, either by their own industry or the favor of fortune; and others, having been foreigners, had come in like manner to inhabit the city, but, from their primitive condition, they still retained the distinctions of lord and vassal, by habit and by fraud, both in the city and the country. And all this mixture were indifferently called nobles, grandees, and families; and they were [11] equally hated, contradicted, and opposed, in the government of the republic, and in all their other actions, by that party which was called the substantial people, il popolo grasso. The lower class of people, the plebeians, il popolo minuto, never intervened in government at all, excepting on one single occasion, when, with violence, they usurped it, as in its proper place will be related. Some persons made still another division of the plebeians, and not without reason; for those who possessed real estate in the city or country, and were recorded in the public books of taxes and tributes of the city, and were called the Enregistered,* esteemed themselves, and were considered by their fellow-citizens, as holding a middle station. The remainder of the lower class, who possessed no kind of property, were held of no account. Nevertheless, all this undistinguished aggregate were called the people of Florence; and the expression is still in use, as the people of Athens, or the people of Rome, anciently comprehended the whole body of the inhabitants of those cities; to which confused, and, in its nature, pernicious aggregate, as that of the head and tail always is, the body of middling citizens will always remain extremely useful, and proportioned to the constitution of a perfect republic. As Machiavel is the most favorable to a popular government, and is even suspected of sometimes disguising the truth to conceal or mollify its defects, the substance of this sketch will be taken from him, referring at the same time to other authors; so that those young Americans who wish to be masters of the subject, may be at no loss for information. The most useful erudition for republicans is that 1which exposes the causes of discord; by which they may learn wisdom and unanimity from the examples of others. The factions in Florence are the most remarkable of any. Most other commonwealths have been divided into two; that city was distracted into many. In Rome, the contest between patricians and plebeians, which arose after the expulsion of kings, continued to the dissolution of the republic. The same happened in Athens, and all the other commonwealths of Greece, Italy, and Asia Minor. [12] Such was the patriotism or good fortune of Florence, that she seems to have gathered fresh vigor, and risen stronger for her factions. Some, who escaped in the struggles, contributed more by their courage and constancy to the exaltation of themselves and their country, than the malignity of faction had done to distress them. And if such orders and balances had been established in their form of government as would have kept the citizens united after they had shaken off the yoke of the empire, it might have equalled any republic, ancient or modern, in military power and the arts of peace. The city of Florence1 was begun by the inhabitants of Fiesole, who, situated on the top of a hill, marked out a plot of ground upon the plain between the hill and the river Arno, for the conveniency of merchants, who first built stores there for their goods. When the Romans had secured Italy by the destruction of Carthage, this place multiplied exceedingly, and became a city by the name of Villa Arnina. Sylla was the first, and, after him, the three Roman citizens who revenged the death and divided the empire of Csar, who sent colonies to Fiesole, that settled in the plain, not far from the town already begun; and the place became so full of buildings and inhabitants, and such provisions were made for a civil government, that it might well be reckoned among the cities of Italy. Whence it took the name of Florence is not so well known. Tacitus calls the town Florentia, and the people Florentines. It was founded under the Roman empire; but when that was overrun by barbarians, Totila, King of the Ostrogoths, took and demolished it. Two hundred and fifty years afterwards, it was rebuilt by Charlemagne, from whose time, till 1215, it followed the fortune of those who successively ruled in Italy; for, during that period, it was governed first by the posterity of Charlemagne, then by the Berengarii, and last of all by the German emperors. In 1010 the Florentines took and destroyed Fiesole. When the popes assumed greater authority in Italy, and the power of the German emperors was upon the wane, all the towns of that province began to govern themselves. In 1080 Italy was divided between Henry III. and the church. Until 1215, the Florentines always submitted to the strongest, having no other ambition [13] than to preserve themselves. But as, in our bodies, the later diseases come, the more dangerous they are, so, the longer Florence put off taking a part in the troubles of Italy, the more fatal these proved. The cause of its first division is well known. The most powerful families in Florence, in 1215, were the Buondelmonti and the Uberti, and next to them the Amidei and Donati. A quarrel happened about a lady, and Messer Buondelmonte was killed. This murder divided the whole city, one part of it siding with the Buondelmonti, and the other with the Uberti; and as both of the families were powerful in alliances, castles, and adherents, the quarrel continued many years, till the reign of the Emperor Frederick II., who, being likewise King of Naples, and desirous to strengthen himself against the church, and establish his interest more securely in Tuscany, joined the Uberti, who by his assistance drove the Buondelmonti out of Florence; and thus that city became divided, as all the rest of Italy was before, into the two factions of Guelphs and Ghibellines.* The Guelphs, thus driven out of the city, retired into the valley, which lies higher up the Arno, where their strong places and dependencies lay, and defended themselves as well as they could; but when Frederick died, the neutral people in the city [14] endeavored to reunite it, and prevailed upon the Guelphs to forget the wrongs they had suffered, and return, and the Ghibellines to dismiss their jealousies, and receive them. After they were reunited, they divided the city into six parts, and chose twelve citizens, two to govern each ward, with the title of Anziani, but to be changed every year. To prevent any feuds or discontents that might arise from the determination of judicial matters, they constituted two judges that were not Florentines, one of whom was styled the captain of the people, and the other the podest, to administer justice to the people, in all causes civil and criminal; and since laws are but of little authority and short duration, where there is not sufficient power to support and enforce them, they raised twenty bands or companies in the city, and seventy-six more in the rest of their territories, in which all the youth were enlisted, and obliged to be ready armed under their respective colors, whenever they were required so to be by the captain or the anziani. Their standard-bearers were changed every year with great formality. This is the very short description of their constitution. The twelve anziani appear to have had the legislative and executive authority, and to have been annually eligiblea form of government as near that of M. Turgot, and Marchmont Nedham, as any to be found;yet the judicial power is here separated, and the people could so little trust themselves or the anziani with this power, that it was given to foreigners. By such discipline in their civil and military affairs, the Florentines laid the foundation of their liberty; and it is hardly to be conceived, how much strength and authority they acquired in a very short time; for their city not only became the capital of Tuscany, but was reckoned among the principal in Italy; and, indeed, there is no degree of grandeur to which it might not have attained, if it had not been obstructed by new and frequent factions. After this pompous preamble, one can scarce read without smiling the words that follow: For the space of ten years they lived under this form of government; especially when it appears that, during all these ten years, they were constantly employed in wars abroad, as appears by the following words: During which time they forced the states of Pistoia, Arezzo, and Siena, to enter into a confederacy with them; and in their return with [15] their army from the last city, they took Volterra, demolished several castles, and brought the inhabitants to Florence. The United States of America calculated their governments for a duration of more than ten years. There is little doubt to be made, that they might have existed under the government of state congresses for ten years, while they were constantly at war, and all the active and idle were in council or in arms; but we have seen, that a state which could be governed by a provincial congress, and, indeed, that could carry on a war without any government at all, while danger pressed, has lately, in time of profound peace, and under a good government, broke out in seditions.1 This democratical government in Florence could last no longer; For in all these expeditions, says Machiavel, the Guelphs had the chief direction and command, as they were much more popular than the Ghibellines, who had behaved themselves so imperiously in the reign of Frederick, when they had the upper hand, that they were become very odious to the people; and because the party of the church was generally thought to favor their attempts to preserve their liberty, whilst that of the emperor endeavored to deprive them of it. The Ghibellines, in the mean time, finding their authority so dwindled, were not a little discontented, and only waited for a proper opportunity to seize upon the government again. They entered into correspondence with Manfred, the son of Frederick, King of Naples, in hopes of his assistance; but, for want of due secrecy in these practices, they were discovered by the anziani, who thereupon summoned the family of the Uberti to appear before them; but, instead of obeying, they took up arms, and fortified themselves in their houses; at which the people were so incensed, that they likewise ran to arms, and, by the help of the Guelphs, obliged the whole party of the Ghibellines to quit Florence, and transport themselves to Siena. There they sued to Manfred for aid, who granted it; and the Guelphs were defeated upon the banks of the river Arbia, with such slaughter, by the kings forces under the conduct of Farinata de gli Uberti, that those who escaped from it, giving up their city for lost, fled directly to Lucca. Manfred had given the command of the [16] auxiliaries, which he sent to the Ghibellines, to Count Giordano, a soldier of no small reputation in those times. This Giordano, after his victory, immediately advanced with the Ghibellines to Florence, and not only forced the city to acknowledge Manfred for its sovereign, but deposed the magistrates, and either entirely abrogated or altered all laws and customs that might look like remains of their former liberty; which being executed with great rigor and insolence, inflamed the people to such a degree, that if they did not love the Ghibellines before, they now became their inveterate and implacable enemies; which aversion continually increasing, at last proved their utter destruction. There is an admirable example of patriotism at this period of the Florentine history, in Farinata Uberti, who successfully and decidedly opposed a plan of his own party of Ghibellines and their allies, for the demolition of the city. He preserved it, however, only for his enemies the Guelphs, who, driven out of Lucca, went to Parma, and joined their friends the Guelphs in that city, drove out the Ghibellines, and had their confiscated estates for their reward. They then joined the pope against Manfred, who was defeated and slain. In consequence of this victory, the Guelphs of Florence grew daily bolder and more vigorous, and the party of the Ghibellines weaker and weaker; upon which Count Guido Novello, and those that were left in commission with him to govern Florence, resolved to try, by lenity and gentler treatment, to recover the affections of the people, whom they found they had exasperated to the last degree by their oppressive and violent manner of proceeding. To cajole and ingratiate themselves with the people, they chose six-and-thirty citizens out of the people of Florence, and two gentlemen of higher rank from among their friends at Bologna, to whom they gave a commission to reform the state. These delegates divided the city into distinct arts or trades, over which they constituted a magistrate, who was to administer justice to all who were in his department; and to every art a separate banner was assigned, under which they might assemble in arms, whenever the safety of the public required it. But Count Guido must have a tax to maintain his soldiers. The citizens would not pay it. He attempted to take back the new privilege of magistrates to each trade. The people rose in arms, chose Giovanni Soldanieri for their leader, fought the Count [17] and his Ghibellines, and drove them out of the city. The people, having thus got the upper hand, resolved to unite the city, if possible, and recall all such citizens as had been forced to leave their homes, whether Guelphs or Ghibellines. The Guelphs returned, after six years banishment; the late attempt of the Ghibellines was pardoned, and they were suffered to come back again; but they still continued very odious both to the Guelphs and the people, the former not being able to forgive the disgrace and hardships of their long exile, nor the latter to forget their insolence and tyranny when they had the government in their hands; so that their ancient animosities were not yet entirely extinguished, either on one side or the other. The wrangle soon came to a crisis, and the Ghibellines fled out of the city, upon the interposition of a foreign force from Charles, King of Naples, in favor of the Guelphs. After the departure of the Ghibellines, the Florentines new-modelled their government, and chose twelve principal magistrates, who were to continue in authority no longer than two months, under the title of buoni homini. Next in power under them they appointed a council of eighty citizens, which they called the Credenza. After this, a hundred and eighty more were elected out of the people, thirty to serve for each sixth, who, together with the credenza and the twelve buoni homini, were called the General Council. Besides which, they instituted another council, consisting of a hundred and twenty members, equally chosen out of the nobility, citizens, and commonalty, which was to confirm whatsoever had been resolved upon by the others, and to act jointly with them in disposing of the public honors and offices of the commonwealth. The first government of the anziani was as near a simple democracy as there is any example of; we found it, accordingly, ineffectual. The next, of buoni homini, was no better; and that could not support itself. Now we come to a new plan, which discovers, in the authors of it, a sense of the imperfection of the former two, and an attempt to obviate its inconveniences and dangers; but instead of a judicious plan, founded in the natural divisions of the people, it is a jumble which common sense would see, at this day, must fall to pieces. The buoni homini, the credenza, and the thirty of the hundred and eighty, wore an appearance of three orders; but, instead of being kept [18] separate, they are all huddled together in the general council. Another council still, of a hundred and twenty, equally chosen out of the nobility, citizens, and commonalty, was to confirm whatever was resolved on by the others. Here are two branches, with each a negative. But the mistake was, that the aristocratical and democratical parts of the community were mixed in each of them; which shows, at first blush, that there never could be harmony in either, both being naturally and necessarily split into two factions. But a greater defect, if possible, than even this, was giving the executive power, the power of disposing of public honors and offices, to a joint assemblage of buoni homini, credenza, and the two other assemblies, all in one. The consequence must be, that although every one of these four orders must be divided at once into factions for the loaves and fishes, yet the nobility, by their superior influence in elections, would have the whole power. Unhappy Florence! thou art destined from this moment to never-ending factions, seditions, and civil wars! Accordingly, we read in the next page, what any one might have foreseen from this sketch of their constitution, that the government of Florence was fallen into great disorder and misrule; for the Guelph nobility, being the majority, were grown so insolent, and stood in so little awe of the magistracy, (and how could they stand in awe of magistrates whom they had created, and who were ever at their devotion?) that though many murders, and other violences, were daily committed, yet the criminals generally escaped with impunity, through favor of one or other of the nobles. In order to restrain these enormities, instead of twelve governors, they resolved to have fourteen, seven of each party, who should be nominated by the pope, and remain in office one year. Under this form of government, in which they had been obliged in reality to submit to a foreign master, they continued for two years, when the rage of faction again blazed out. They rose in arms, and put the city under a new regulation. This was in 1282, when the companies of arts and trades ordained, that instead of fourteen citizens, three only should govern, and that for two months, who were to be chosen indifferently out of the nobility or commons, provided they were merchants, or professed any art or occupation; and these were called priori. Afterwards, [19] the chief magistracy was vested in six persons, one for each ward, under which regulation the city continued till the year 1342.1 But the course of events for these sixty years should be carefully traced, in order to see the operation of such a form of government, even in a single city. This institution, as might be expected, occasioned the ruin of the nobility, who, upon divers provocations, were excluded, and entirely suppressed by the people. The nobility, indeed, were divided among themselves; and by endeavoring to supplant each other, and aspiring to the sole government of the commonwealth, they quite lost all share in it. The priori were afterwards distinguished by the name of signori. There remained some sparks of animosity betwixt the nobility and commonalty, which are incident to all republics; for one side being naturally jealous of any encroachment upon their liberty and legal rights, and the other ambitious to rule and control the laws, it is not possible they should ever long agree together. This humor, however, did not show itself in the nobility while they were overawed by the Ghibellines; but when the latter were depressed, it began to appear, and the people were daily injured and abused in such a manner, that neither the laws nor the magistracy had authority enough to relieve them; as every nobleman supported himself in his insolence by the number of his friends and relations, both against the power of the signori [20] and the captain of the people. The heads of the arts, wishing to remedy so great an evil, provided that every signory should appoint a standard-bearer of justice, out of the people, with a thousand men divided into twenty companies, under him, who should be always ready with their standard and arms whenever ordered by the magistracy. This establishment met little opposition, on account of the jealousy and emulation that reigned among the nobility, who were not in the least aware that it was levelled at them, till they felt the smart of it. Then, indeed, they were not a little awed by it for some time; but in a while they returned to the commission of their former outrages; for as some of them always found means to insinuate themselves into the signory, they had it in their power to prevent the standard-bearer from executing his office. Besides, as witnesses were always required upon any accusation, the plaintiff could hardly ever find any one that durst give evidence against the nobility; so that in a short time Florence was involved in its former distractions, and the people exposed to violence and oppression; as justice was grown dilatory, and sentence, though passed, seldom or never executed.