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Questions and Answers of Biology

Local anesthetics block voltage-gated Na+ channels. General anesthetics are thought to activate chemically gated Cl− channels, thereby rendering the nervous system quiescent while surgery is
When admitted to the emergency room, Sean was holding his right hand, which had a deep puncture hole in its palm. He explained that he had fallen on a nail while exploring a barn. Sean was given an
Rochelle developed multiple sclerosis when she was 27. After eight years she had lost a good portion of her ability to control her skeletal muscles. How did this happen?
In the Netherlands a young man named Jan was admitted to the emergency room. He and his friends had been to a rave. His friends say he started twitching and having muscle spasms which progressed
Make a diagram showing the three primary (embryonic) brain vesicles. Name each and then use clinical terminology to name the resulting adult brain regions.
What is an aura?
Describe the stages of sleep and outline the order in which we progress through these stages during a typical night's sleep.
Compare and contrast short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) relative to storage capacity and duration of the memory.
Define memory consolidation.
List four ways in which the CNS is protected.
(a) How is cerebrospinal fluid formed and drained? Describe its pathway within and around the brain. (b) What happens if CSF does not drain properly? Why is this consequence more harmful in adults?
What constitutes the blood brain barrier?
(a) Define concussion and contusion. (b) Why does severe brain stem injury result in unconsciousness?
Describe the spinal cord, depicting its extent, its composition of gray and white matter, and its spinal roots.
How do the types of motor activity controlled by the direct (pyramidal) and indirect systems differ?
(a) What is the advantage of having a cerebrum that is highly convoluted?(b) What term is used to indicate its grooves? Its outward folds?(c) Which groove divides the cerebrum into two
Describe the functional problems that would be experienced by a person in which these fiber tracts have been cut: (a) Lateral spinothalamic, (b) Ventral and dorsal spinocerebellar, (c) Tectospinal.
Differentiate between spastic and flaccid paralysis.
How do the conditions paraplegia, hemiplegia, and quadriplegia differ?
(a) Define cerebrovascular accident or CVA. (b) Describe its possible causes and consequences.
(a) What factors account for brain growth after birth? (b) List some structural brain changes observed with aging.
(a) Make a rough drawing of the lateral aspect of the left cerebral hemisphere. (b) You may be thinking, "But I just can't draw!" So, name the hemisphere involved with most people's ability to
(a) What does lateralization of cortical functioning mean? (b) Why is the term cerebral dominance a misnomer?
(a) What is the function of the basal nuclei? (b) Which basal nuclei form the striatum? (c) Which arches over the diencephalon?
Explain how the cerebellum is physically connected to the brain stem.
Describe the role of the cerebellum in maintaining smooth, coordinated skeletal muscle activity.
(a) Where is the limbic system located? (b) Which structures make up this system? (c) How is the limbic system important in behavior?
(a) Localize the reticular formation in the brain. (b) What does RAS mean, and what is its function?
A 10-month-old infant has an enlarging head circumference and delayed overall development. She has a bulging anterior fontanelle and her CSF pressure is elevated. Based on these findings, answer the
Mrs. Jones has had a progressive decline in her mental capabilities in the last five or six years. At first her family attributed her occasional memory lapses, confusion, and agitation to grief over
Robert, a brilliant computer analyst, suffered a blow to his anterior skull from a falling rock while mountain climbing. Shortly thereafter, it was obvious to his coworkers that his behavior had
Mrs. Adams is ready to deliver her first baby. Unfortunately, the baby appears to have a myelomeningocele. Would a vaginal or surgical (C-section) delivery be more appropriate and why?
The medical chart of a 68-year-old man includes the following notes: "Slight tremor of right hand at rest; stony facial expression; difficulty in initiating movements." (a) Based on your present
Cynthia, a 16-year-old girl, was rushed to the hospital after taking a bad spill off the parallel bars. After she had a complete neurological workup, her family was told that she would be permanently
Five-year-old Amy wakes her parents up at 3 am crying and complaining of a sore neck, severe headache, and feeling sick to her stomach. She has a temperature of 40°C (104°F) and hides her eyes,
What is the functional relationship of the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system?
Differentiate between ipsilateral and contralateral reflexes.
What is the homeostatic value of flexor reflexes?
Compare and contrast flexor and crossed-extensor reflexes.
Explain how a crossed-extensor reflex exemplifies both serial and parallel processing.
What clinical information can be gained by conducting somatic reflex tests?
What is the structural and functional relationship between spinal nerves, skeletal muscles, and dermatomes?
List the structural components of the peripheral nervous system, and describe the function of each component.
Differentiate clearly between sensation and perception.
Central pattern generators (CPGs) are found at the segmental level of motor control. (a) What is the job of the CPGs? (b) What controls them, and where is this control localized?
Make a diagram of the hierarchy of motor control. Position the CPGs, motor cortex, brain stem nuclei, cerebellum, and basal nuclei in this scheme.
Why are the cerebellum and basal nuclei called precommand areas?
Explain why damage to peripheral nerve fibers is often reversible, whereas damage to CNS fibers rarely is.
(a) Describe the formation and composition of a spinal nerve. (b) Name the branches of a spinal nerve (other than the rami communicantes), and indicate their distribution.
Define plexus.
In 1962 a boy playing in a train yard fell under a train. The train wheel cleanly cut off his right arm. Surgeons reattached the arm, sewing nerves and vessels back together. The boy was told he
Marcus, a football quarterback, suffered torn menisci in his right knee joint when tackled from the side. The same injury crushed his common fibular nerve against the head of the fibula. What
As Luke fell off a ladder, he grabbed a tree branch with his right hand, but unfortunately lost his grip and fell heavily to the ground. Days later, Luke complained that his upper limb was numb. What
Mr. Frank, a former stroke victim who had made a remarkable recovery, suddenly began to have problems reading. He complained of seeing double and also had problems navigating steps. He was unable to
One of a group of rabbit hunters was accidentally sprayed with buckshot in both of his gluteal prominences. When his companions saw that he would survive, they laughed and joked about where he had
You are at a party at Emma's house. After you are blindfolded, an object (a key or a rabbit's foot) is placed in your hand. Which spinal tracts carry the signals to the cortex that will allow you to
Fumiko, a 19-year-old nursing student, had had a runny nose and sore throat for several days. Upon waking, her face felt "twisted." When she examined her face in the mirror, she noticed that the
Mr. Jake was admitted to the hospital with excruciating pain in his left shoulder and arm. He was found to have suffered a heart attack. Explain the phenomenon of referred pain as exhibited by Mr.
Briefly explain why the following terms are sometimes used to refer to the autonomic nervous system: involuntary nervous system and emotional-visceral system.
Describe the anatomical relationship of the white and gray rami communicantes to the spinal nerve, and indicate the kind of fibers found in each ramus type.
Indicate the results of sympathetic activation of the following structures: sweat glands, eye pupils, adrenal medullae, heart, bronchioles of the lungs, liver, blood vessels of vigorously working
Which of the effects listed in response to question 7 would be reversed by parasympathetic activity?
Which ANS fibers release acetylcholine? Which release norepinephrine?
Describe the meaning and importance of sympathetic tone and parasympathetic tone.
Which area of the brain is most directly involved in mediating autonomic reflexes?
Describe the importance of the hypothalamus in controlling the autonomic nervous system.
Postganglionic neurons are also called ganglionic neurons. Why is the latter term more accurate?
Mr. Johnson suffers from urinary retention and a hypoactive urinary bladder. Bethanechol, a drug that mimics acetylcholine's autonomic effects, is prescribed to manage his problem. First explain the
A 32-year-old woman complains of intermittent aching pains in the medial two fingers of both hands. During such episodes, the fingers become blanched and then blue. Her history is taken, and it is
Tiffany, a 21-year-old college student, is having trouble sleeping, crying frequently, and having recurrent thoughts of suicide. An antidepressant is prescribed. Like many such drugs, this
As the aroma of freshly brewed coffee drifted by dozing Henry's nose, his mouth started to water and his stomach began to rumble. Explain his reactions in terms of ANS activity.
Why do you often have to blow your nose after crying?
How do rods and cones differ functionally?
Where is the fovea centralis, and why is it important?
Describe the response of rhodopsin to light stimuli. What is the outcome of this cascade of events?
Since there are only three types of cones, how can you explain the fact that we see many more colors?
Where are the olfactory sensory neurons, and why is that site poorly suited for their job?
Each olfactory sensory neuron responds to a single type of odorant molecule. True or false? Explain your choice.
Name the five primary taste qualities and the cranial nerves that serve the sense of taste.
Describe the effect of aging on the special sense organs.
During an ophthalmoscopic examination, Mrs. James was found to have bilateral papilledema. Further investigation indicated that this condition resulted from a rapidly growing intracranial tumor.
Henri, a chef in a five-star French restaurant, has been diagnosed with leukemia. He is about to undergo chemotherapy, which will kill rapidly dividing cells in his body. He needs to continue working
Maria, a 9-year-old girl, told the clinic physician that her "ear lump hurt" and she kept "getting dizzy and falling down." As she told her story, she pointed to her mastoid process. An otoscopic
Mr. Gaspe appeared at the eye clinic complaining of a chip of wood in his eye. No foreign body was found, but the conjunctiva was obviously inflamed. What name is given to this inflammatory
Mrs. Orlando has been noticing flashes of light and tiny specks in her right visual field. When she begins to see a "veil" floating before her right eye, she makes an appointment to see the eye
David Norris, an engineering student, has been working in a nightclub to earn money to pay for his education. After about eight months, he notices that he is having problems hearing high-pitched
Assume that a tumor in the pituitary gland or hypothalamus is protruding inferiorly and compressing the optic chiasma. What could be the visual outcome?
Four-year-old Owen Thompson is brought to the ophthalmologist for a routine checkup on his vision. Owen is an albino. How do you think albinism affects vision?
Right before Jan, a senior citizen, had a large plug of earwax cleaned from her ear, she developed a constant howling sound in her ear that would not stop. It was very annoying and stressful, and she
During an anatomy and physiology lab exercise designed to teach the use of the ophthalmoscope, you notice that your lab partner has difficulty seeing objects in the darkened room. Upon examining her
Define hormone.
List some problems that elderly people might have as a result of decreasing hormone production.
Which type of hormone receptor-plasma membrane bound or intracellular-would be expected to provide the most long-lived response to hormone binding and why?
(a) Describe the body location of each of the following endocrine organs: anterior pituitary, pineal gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, and adrenal glands. (b) List the hormones produced by each organ.
Name two endocrine glands (or regions) that are important in the stress response, and explain why they are important.
The anterior pituitary is often referred to as the master endocrine organ, but it, too, has a "master." What controls the release of anterior pituitary hormones?
The posterior pituitary is not really an endocrine gland. Why not? What is it?
Endemic goiter is not really the result of a malfunctioning thyroid gland. What does cause it?
How are the hyperglycemia and lipidemia of insulin deficiency linked?
Name a hormone secreted by a muscle cell and two hormones secreted by neurons.

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