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essentials of statistics

Essentials Of Statistics For The Behavioral Sciences 5th Edition Susan A. Nolan, Thomas Heinzen - Solutions

7.12 What do these symbolic expressions mean: H0: μ1 = μ2 and H1: μ1 ≠ μ2?
7.11 What does statistically significant mean to statisticians?
7.10 What is the standard size of the critical region used by most statisticians?
7.6 What sample size is recommended to meet the assumption of a normal distribution of means, even when the underlying population of scores is not normal? 7.7 What is the difference between parametric tests and nonparametric tests? 7.8 What are the six steps of hypothesis testing? 7.9 What are
7.5 In statistics, what do we mean by assumptions?
7.4 How is calculating a percentile for a mean from a distribution of means different from doing so for a score from a distribution of scores?
7.3 How do we calculate the percentage of scores below a particular positive z score?
7.2 When we look up a z score on the z table, what information can we report?
#!# 7.1 What is a percentile?
6.59 Cheating in online gaming: Researchers used the normal curve to investigate cheating among online gamers playing a car racing game (Christensen et al., 2013). The graph below shows the winning times for one version of the game.a. Referring to Chapter 3, what kind of graph is this and why?
6.58 Which was better, the book or the movie: FiveThirtyEight is a popular blog that uses statistics in creative ways to better understand politics, sports, science and health, economics, and culture. In one article (Hickey, 2015), the author uses z scores to standardize book reviews from
6.57 Cheating on standardized tests: In their book Freakonomics, Levitt and Dubner (2009) describe alleged cheating among teachers in the Chicago public school system. Certain classrooms had suspiciously strong performances on standardized tests that often mysteriously declined the following year
6.56 Rural friendships and the General Social Survey: Earlier, we considered data from the GSS on numbers of close friends people reported having. The mean for this variable is 7.44, with a standard deviation of 10.98. Let’s say that you decide to use the GSS data to test whether people who live
6.55 Probability and medical treatments: The three most common treatments for blocked coronary arteries are medication, bypass surgery, and angioplasty, which is a medical procedure that involves clearing out arteries and that leads to higher profits for doctors than do the other two treatments.
6.54 The z distribution and a “super recognizer”: According to a news article, “Friends call Constable [Gary] Collins Rain Man or Yoda or simply The Oracle. But to Scotland Yard, London’s metropolitan police force, he is known as a ‘super recognizer’” (Bennhold, 2015). Prosopagnosia,
6.53 The z distribution and a rogue cardiologist: A cardiologist in Munster, Indiana, was accused of performing unnecessary heart surgeries (Cresswell, 2015). Investigators found that the rates for one heart procedure were in the top 10% in the country for the city where this doctor worked. Lawyers
6.52 Percentiles, raw scores, and credit card theft: Credit card companies will often call cardholders if the pattern of use indicates that the card might have been stolen. Let’s say that you charge an average of $280 a month on your credit card, with a standard deviation of $75. The credit card
6.51 A distribution of means and the General Social Survey: Refer to Exercise 6.49. Again, pretend that the GSS sample is the entire population of interest.a. Imagine that you randomly selected 80 people from this population, and that they had a mean of 8.7. Would you compare this sample mean to a
6.50 A distribution of scores and the General Social Survey: Refer to the previous exercise. Again, pretend that the GSS sample is the entire population of interest.a. Imagine that you randomly selected one person from this population who reported that he had 18 close friends. Would you compare his
6.49 Distributions and the General Social Survey: The General Social Survey (GSS) is a survey of approximately 2000 U.S. adults conducted each year since 1972, for a total of more than 38,000 participants. During several years of the GSS, participants were asked how many close friends they have.
6.48 Distributions, personality testing, and social introversion: See the description of the MMPI-2 in the previous exercise. The mean T score is always 50, and the standard deviation is always 10. Imagine that you administer the MMPI-2 to 50 respondents who do not use Instagram or any other social
6.47 Distributions, personality testing, and depression: The revised version of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) is the most frequently administered self-report personality measure. Test-takers respond to more than 500 true/false statements, and their responses are scored,
6.46 Distributions and life expectancy: Researchers have reported that the projected life expectancy for South African men diagnosed with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) at age 20 who receive antiretroviral therapy (ART) is 27.6 years (Johnson et al., 2013). Imagine that the researchers
6.45 Raw scores, z scores, percentiles, and sports teams: Let’s look at baseball and football again. We’ll look at data for all of the teams in Major League Baseball (MLB) and the National Football League (NFL), respectively.a. In 2012, the mean number of wins for MLB teams was 81.00, with a
6.44 The z distribution and comparing scores on two tests of English language learning: The Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), with scores ranging from 0 to 120, has traditionally been the most commonly used exam of reading comprehension, vocabulary, writing, and grammar for
6.43 z scores and comparisons of sports teams: A common quandary faces sports fans who live in the same city but avidly follow different sports. How does one determine whose team did better with respect to its league division? In 2012, the Atlanta Braves baseball team and the Atlanta Falcons
6.42 Percentiles and eating habits: As noted in How It Works 6.1, Georgiou and colleagues (1997) reported that college students had healthier eating habits, on average, than did those individuals who were neither college students nor college graduates. The 412 students in the study ate breakfast a
6.41 The normal curve in the media: Statistics geeks rejoiced when the New York Times published an article on the normal curve (Dunn, 2013)! Biologist Casey Dunn wrote that “Many real-world observations can be approximated by, and tested against, the same expected pattern: the normal
6.40 The normal curve and real-life variables, part II: For each of the following variables, state whether the distribution of scores would likely approximate a normal curve. Explain your answer.a. Number of minutes that students check social media sites each weekb. Volume of water that people
6.39 The normal curve and real-life variables, part I: For each of the following variables, state whether the distribution of scores would likely approximate a normal curve. Explain your answer.a. Number of movies that a college student watches in a yearb. Number of full-page advertisements in a
6.38 Converting z scores to raw CFC scores: A study using the Consideration of Future Consequences scale found a mean CFC score of 3.20, with a standard deviation of 0.70, for the 800 students in the sample (Adams, 2012).a. Imagine that your z score on the CFC score is −1.2. What is your raw
6.37 z statistics and CFC scores: We have already discussed summary parameters for CFC scores for the population of participants in a study by Adams (2012). The mean CFC score was 3.20, with a standard deviation of 0.70. (Remember that we treated the sample of 800 participants as the entire
6.36 The z distribution applied to admiration ratings: A sample of 148 of our statistics students rated their level of admiration for Hillary Clinton on a scale of 1 to 7. The mean rating was 4.06, and the standard deviation was 1.70. (For this exercise, treat this sample as the entire population
6.35 The z distribution and hours slept: A sample of 150 statistics students reported the typical number of hours that they sleep on a weeknight. The mean number of hours was 6.65, and the standard deviation was 1.24. (For this exercise, treat this sample as the entire population of interest.)a.
6.34 z scores and the GRE: By design, the verbal subtest of the GRE has a population mean of 500 and a population standard deviation of 100 (the quantitative subtest has the same mean and standard deviation).a. Use symbolic notation to state the mean and the standard deviation of the GRE verbal
6.33 Distributions and getting ready for a date: We asked 150 students in our statistics classes how long, in minutes, they typically spend getting ready for a date. The scores ranged from 1 minute to 120 minutes, and the mean was 51.52 minutes. Here are the data for 40 of these students: 30 90 60
6.32 Normal distributions in real life: Many variables are normally distributed, but not all are. (Fortunately, the central limit theorem saves us when we conduct research on samples from non-normal populations if the samples are larger than 30!) Which of the following are likely to be normally
6.31 A sample of 100 people had a mean depression score of 85; the population mean for this depression measure is 80, with a standard deviation of 20. A different sample of 100 people had a mean score of 17 on a different depression measure; the population mean for this measure is 15, with a
6.30 Compute a z statistic for each of the following, assuming the population has a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 20:a. A sample of 43 scores has a mean of 101.b. A sample of 60 scores has a mean of 96.c. A sample of 29 scores has a mean of 100.
6.29 A population has a mean of 55 and a standard deviation of 8. Compute μM and σM for each of the following sample sizes:a. 30b. 300c. 3000
6.28 Compute the standard error (σM) for each of the following sample sizes, assuming a population mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 20:a. 45b. 100c. 4500
6.27 Assume a normal distribution when answering the following questions.a. What percentage of scores falls below the mean?b. What percentage of scores falls between 1 standard deviation below the mean and 2 standard deviations above the mean?c. What percentage of scores lies beyond 2 standard
6.26 Compare the following scores:a. A score of 811 when μ = 800 and σ = 29 against a score of 4524 when μ = 3127 and σ = 951b. A score of 17 when μ = 30 and σ = 12 against a score of 67 when μ = 88 and σ = 16
6.25 Using the instructions in Example 6.9, compare the following “apples and oranges”: a score of 45 when the population mean is 51 and the standard deviation is 4, and a score of 732 when the population mean is 765 and the standard deviation is 23.a. Convert these scores to standardized
6.24 A study of the Consideration of Future Consequences (CFC) scale found a mean score of 3.20, with a standard deviation of 0.70, for the 800 students in the sample (Adams, 2012). (Treat this sample as the entire population of interest.)a. If the CFC score is 4.2, what is the z score? Use
6.23 By design, the verbal subtest of the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) has a population mean of 500 and a population standard deviation of 100. Convert the following z scores to raw scores using symbolic notation and the formula.a. 1.5b. −0.5c. −2.0
6.22 By design, the verbal subtest of the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) has a population mean of 500 and a population standard deviation of 100. Convert the following z scores to raw scores without using a formula.a. 1.5b. −0.5c. −2.0
6.21 For a population with a mean of 1179 and a standard deviation of 164, convert each of the following z scores to raw scores.a. −0.23b. 1.41c. 2.06d. 0.03
6.20 For a population with a mean of 250 and a standard deviation of 47, convert each of the following z scores to raw scores.a. 0.54b. −2.66c. −1.00d. 1.79
6.19 For a population with a mean of 250 and a standard deviation of 47, calculate the z scores for 203 and 297. Explain the meaning of these values.
6.17 A population has a mean of 1179 and a standard deviation of 164. Calculate z scores for each of the following raw scores:a. 1000b. 721c. 1531d. 1184 6.18 For a population with a mean of 250 and a standard deviation of 47, calculate the z score for 250. Explain the meaning of the value you
6.16 A population has a mean of 250 and a standard deviation of 47. Calculate z scores for each of the following raw scores:a. 391b. 273c. 199d. 160d. What do you observe happening across these three distributions? 6.16 A population has a mean of 250 and a standard deviation of 47. Calculate z
6.15 Create a histogram for these three sets of scores. Each set of scores represents a sample taken from the same population.a. 6 4 11 7 7b. 6 4 11 7 7 2 10 7 8 6 6 7 5 8c. 6 4 11 7 7 2 10 7 8 6 6 7 5 8 7 8 9 7 6 9 3 9 5 6 8 11 8 3 8 4 10 8 5 5 8 9 9 7 8 7 10 7d. What do you observe happening
6.14 Each of the following equations has an error. Identify, fix, and explain the error in each of the following equations.a. σM = μ √Nb. z = (μ − μM) σM (for a distribution of means)c. z = (M − μM) σ (for a distribution of means)d. z = (X − μ) σM (for a distribution of scores)
6.13 What does a z statistic—a z score based on a distribution of means —tell us about a sample mean?
6.12 Why does the standard error become smaller simply by increasing the sample size?
6.11 What is the difference between standard deviation and standard error?
6.10 What does the symbol σM stand for?
6.9 What does the symbol μM stand for?
6.8 Why is the central limit theorem such an important idea for dealing with a population that is not normally distributed?
6.7 What are the mean and the standard deviation of the z distribution?
6.6 Give three reasons why z scores are useful.
6.5 What is a z score?
6.4 Explain how the word standardize is used in everyday conversation, then explain how statisticians use it.
6.3 How does the size of a sample of scores affect the shape of the distribution of data?
6.2 What point on the normal curve represents the most commonly occurring observation?
6.1 Explain how the word normal is used in everyday conversation, then explain how statisticians use it.
5.65 Preregistration, crowdsourcing, and fake news: Ethical researchers are increasingly using the Internet to modernize their research and conduct it in a more ethical way. In one study, not yet peer-reviewed, Yale researchers found that increased exposure to fake news headlines led to increased
5.64 Treatment for depression: Researchers conducted a study of 18 patients whose depression had not responded to treatment (Zarate, 2006). Half received one intravenous dose of ketamine, a hypothesized quick fix for depression; half received one intravenous dose of placebo. Far more of the
5.63 Alcohol abuse interventions: Sixty-four male students were ordered, after they had violated university alcohol rules, to meet with a school counselor. Borsari and Carey (2005) randomly assigned these students to one of two conditions. Those in the first condition were assigned to undergo a
5.62 Horoscopes and predictions: People remember when their horoscopes had an uncanny prediction—say, the prediction of a problem in love on the exact day of the breakup of a romantic relationship—and decide that horoscopes are accurate. Munro and Munro (2000) are among those who have
5.61 Testimonials and Harry Potter: Amazon and other online bookstores offer readers the opportunity to write their own book reviews, and many potential readers scour these reviews to decide which books to buy. Harry Potter books attract a great deal of these reader reviews. One Amazon reviewer,
5.60 Probability and sumo wrestling: In their book Freakonomics, Levitt and Dubner (2005) describe a study conducted by Duggan and Levitt (2002) that broached the question: Do sumo wrestlers cheat? Sumo wrestlers garner enormous respect in Japan, where sumo wrestling is considered the national
5.59 Confirmation bias, errors, replication, and horoscopes: A horoscope on Astrology.com stated: “A big improvement is in the works, one that you may know nothing about, and today is the day for the big unveiling.” A job-seeking recent college graduate might spot some new listings for
5.58 Rejecting versus failing to reject an invitation: Imagine you have found a new study partner in your statistics class. One day, your study partner asks you to go on a date. This invitation takes you completely by surprise, and you have no idea what to say. You are not attracted to the person
5.57 Type I versus Type II errors: Examine the statements from the previous exercise repeated here. For each, if this conclusion were incorrect, what type of error would the researcher have made? Explain your answer.a. When false information is repeated several times, people seem to be more likely,
5.56 Decision about null hypotheses: For each of the following fictional conclusions, state whether the researcher seems to have rejected or failed to reject the null hypothesis (contingent, of course, on inferential statistics having backed up the statement). Explain the rationale for your
5.55 Null hypotheses and research hypotheses: For each of the following studies, cite the likely null hypothesis and the likely research hypothesis.a. A forensic cognitive psychologist wondered whether repetition of false information (versus no repetition) would increase the tendency to develop
5.54 Independent or dependent trials and probability: Gamblers often falsely predict the outcome of a future trial based on the outcome of previous trials. When trials are independent, the outcome of a future trial cannot be predicted based on the outcomes of previous trials. For each of the
5.53 Independent trials and the U.S. presidential election: Nate Silver is a statistician and journalist who uses statistics to create prediction tools. In an article leading up to the 2012 U.S. presidential election in which Barack Obama bested Mitt Romney, Silver (2012) explained his prediction
5.52 Independent trials and Eurovision Song Contest bias: As reported in the Telegraph (Highfield, 2005), Oxford University researchers investigated allegations of voting bias in the annual Eurovision Song Contest, which pits pop music acts from across Europe, one per country, against each other.
5.51 Probability, proportion, percentage, and Where’s Waldo?: Slate.com reporter Ben Blatt (2013) analyzed the location of Waldo in the game in which you must find Waldo, a cartoon man who always wears a red-and-white-striped sweater and hat, in a highly detailed illustration. Blatt reported that
5.50 Probability and coin flips: Short-run proportions are often quite different from long-run probabilities.a. In your own words, explain why we would expect proportions to fluctuate in the short run, but why longrun probabilities are more predictable.b. What is the expected long-run probability
5.49 Confirmation bias and negative thought patterns: Explain how the general tendency of a confirmation bias might make it difficult to change negative thought patterns that accompany major depressive disorder.
5.48 Random sampling or random assignment: For each of the following hypothetical scenarios, state whether sampling or assignment is being described. Is the method of sampling or assignment random? Explain your answer.a. A study of the services offered by counseling centers at Canadian universities
5.47 Samples and a survey on sex education: The Gizmodo blog Throb, a Web site focused on the science of sex, released its own sex education survey (Kelly, 2015). The journalist who developed the survey wrote: “I hope that with enough of your answers, we can start to build a picture of what sex
5.46 Samples and Cosmo quizzes: Cosmopolitan magazine (Cosmo, as it’s known popularly) publishes many of its wellknown quizzes on its Web site. One quiz, aimed at heterosexual women, is titled “Are You Way Too Obsessed with Your Ex?” A question about “your rebound guy” offers these three
5.45 Online sampling and visualizing neurons: Researcher Zoran Popović has developed a video game called Mozak (SerboCroatian for “brain”) for the Allen Institute for Brain Science that enlists players—research participants, actually—to trace lines over images of neurons (Wingfield,
5.44 Random sampling and random assignment: For each of the following studies, state (1) whether random sampling was likely to have been used, and explain whether it would have been possible to use it. Also, describe the population to which the researcher wanted to and could generalize, and state
5.43 Random sampling and a survey of psychology majors: Imagine that you have been hired by the psychology department at your school to administer a survey to psychology majors about their experiences in the department. You have been asked to randomly select 60 of these majors from the overall pool
5.42 Negativity bias and WEIRD: Refer to the description of the study by Amber Boydstun and her colleagues (2019) in the previous exercise. How is the COG statement provided by the authors related to the WEIRD problem?
5.44 Random sampling and random assignment: For each of the following studies, state (1) whether random sampling was likely to have been used, and explain whether it would have been possible to use it. Also, describe the population to which the researcher wanted to and could generalize, and state
5.42 Negativity bias and WEIRD: Refer to the description of the study by Amber Boydstun and her colleagues (2019) in the previous exercise. How is the COG statement provided by the authors related to the WEIRD problem? 5.43 Random sampling and a survey of psychology majors: Imagine that you have
5.41 Negativity bias and constraints on generality: In a recent article, Amber Boydstun and her colleagues (2019) described a study on the effects of negativity bias in a political context. Negativity bias is the finding that people’s decisions are more influenced by negatively framed information
5.40 Random assignment and the school psychologist career survey: Refer to the previous exercise when responding to the following questions.a. Describe how the researcher would randomly assign the participants to the levels of the independent variable. Be sure to explain how the levels of the
5.39 Hypotheses and the school psychologist career survey: Continuing with the study described in the previous exercise, once the researcher had randomly selected the sample of 100 Canadian psychologists, she decided to randomly assign 50 of them to receive, as part of their survey materials, a
5.38 Random sampling and a school psychologist career survey: Imagine that the Canadian government reported that there are 7550 psychologists working in Canada. A researcher wants to randomly sample 100 of the Canadian psychologists for a survey study regarding aspects of their jobs.a. What is the
5.37 Random numbers and PINs: How random is your personal identification number or PIN? Your PIN is one of the most important safeguards for the accounts that hold your money and valuable information about you. The BBC reported that, when choosing a four-digit PIN, “people drift towards a small
5.36 Coincidence and the lottery: “Woman wins millions from Texas lottery for 4th time” read the headline about Joan Ginther’s amazing luck (Wetenhall, 2010). Two of the tickets were from the same store, whose owner, Bob Solis, said, “This is a very lucky store.” Citing concepts from the
5.35 Indicate whether each of the following statements refers to personal probability or to expected relative-frequency probability. Explain your answers.a. The chance of a die showing an even number is 50%.b. There is a 1 in 4 chance that I’ll be late for class tomorrow.c. The likelihood that

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