Questions and Answers of Research Methods Behavioral

Describe the similarities and differences between a research proposal and a research report.
Identify the circumstances in which it is useful to write a research proposal before conducting the actual research study. In each case, explain why the proposal would be useful.
For each of the following, identify the section of a research report that would probably contain the desired information:1. How many individuals participated in the study, and what are their
Describe the major elements of the introduction section for an APA-style empirical research report.
What information should be included in the abstract of an APA-style research report?
List the major sections of an APA-style report in order of appearance.
Create an example of a citation for each of the following:a. A single author cited in parenthesesb. Two or more authors cited as the subject of a sentencec. Seven authors cited in parenthesesd. The
In addition to the key words, you should also be able to define each of the following terms:Publication Manual of the American PsychologicalAssociationPlagiarismAuthor noteSubjects
Cohen’s kappa was developed to deal with a particular problem with measuring interrater reliability. Identify the problem that the technique attempts to solve.
Describe the basic problem with a split-half correlation that the K-R-20 and Cronbach’s alphas are designed to correct.
Identify the appropriate hypothesis test for each of the following research situations.a. A researcher conducts a between-subjects study to determine whether there is a significant difference in
The purpose of an independent-measures t-test is to determine whether the mean difference obtained between two groups in a between-subjects study is greater than could reasonably be expected by
Explain how increasing the size of the sample size can influence the outcome of a hypothesis test.
Describe the relationship between the alpha level and the likelihood of making a Type I error.
A hypothesis test attempts to rule out chance, or sampling error, as a plausible explanation for the results from a research study. Explain how a hypothesis test accomplishes this goal.
Briefly explain what is meant when a researcher reports “a significant mean difference between two treatment conditions.”
Describe the general concept of sampling error and explain why this concept creates a problem to be addressed by inferential statistics.
Describe the appearance of a scatter plot showing the data from a set of scores that produces a Pearson correlation of r = −0.76.
Describe a distribution of scores that has a mean of M = 30 and a standard deviation of SD = 6 (Where are the scores centered? What range of values contains most of the scores?)
Under what circumstances are the median and the mode considered to be better than the mean for describing central tendency?
Construct a frequency distribution histogram or polygon for the set of scores presented in the following frequency distribution
A researcher who is interested in examining the eating behavior of adolescents records the number of calories consumed each day by each individual in a sample of 25 adolescents and computes the
Identify the basic goals for descriptive statistics and for inferential statistics.
In addition to the key words, you should also be able to Define each of the following terms:Frequency distributionHistogramPolygonBar graphDegrees of freedom, dfLine graphScatter plotPearson
Briefly explain why a clinical psychologist might prefer doing research with a single-subject design instead of traditional group design.
Under what circumstances would it be difficult to interpret the results of a multiple-baseline design?
Suppose that a complex therapy procedure contains one component that has absolutely no effect on behavior. Explain how a component design could be used to demonstrate that the component has no
How does a multiple-baseline design rule out chance or coincidence as the explanation for changes in behavior that occur when the treatment is started?
Although researchers typically begin a single-case reversal study with the intention of using an ABAB design, what outcome can cause the researcher to switch to a more complex phase-change design?
Explain why a researcher might have some ethical reservations about beginning the second baseline phase in an ABAB single-case design
Under what circumstances would you use a multiple-baseline design instead of an ABAB (reversal) design?
Explain why an ABAB reversal design is inappropriate for a treatment that has a permanent or long-lasting effect.
In general, how does a phase-change design like the ABAB reversal design demonstrate that the treatment (rather than chance or coincidence) is responsible for causing changes in behavior?
Identify the four phases that make up an ABAB (reversal) design, and describe how the participant’s behavior is expected to change each time the phase is changed if the study is successful.
What pattern of results is needed to provide convincing evidence that behavior changed when the phase was changed?
Define the concept of “stability” within a phase, and explain why it is important.
In a single-case study consisting of a series of phases, how long should each phase be and what factor determines that it is time to change phases?
What elements are required for a single-case research study to qualify as an experiment?
Traditional statistics (means, variances, and hypothesis tests) are not used to evaluate the results from a single-case study. Explain how the results are evaluated.
What is the goal of a single-case experimental research design?
In addition to the key words, you should also be able to define the following terms:Statistical significance / Statistically significant resultPractical significance, or clinical significance
Most research in the behavioral sciences involves gathering information from a group of participants. However, the case study design focuses on a single individual. Under what circumstances is the
Outline the major advantages and disadvantages of administering a survey by mail.
Define the three types of survey questions (open-ended, restricted, and rating-scale) and identify the relative strengths and weaknesses of each.
Each of the following research studies uses a survey as a method for collecting data. However, not all of the studies are examples of the survey research design. Based on the information provided for
What is the general advantage of using the survey research design instead of the observational design? In the same context, what is the disadvantage of survey research?
Explain the distinction between naturalistic and contrived observation, and describe the situations in which contrived observation may be particularly useful.
Explain the distinction between naturalistic observation and participant observation, and describe the situations in which participant observation may be particularly useful.
Define content analysis, and explain how it is different from regular behavioral observation.
Describe how time, event, or individual sampling is done during behavioral observation, and explain why sampling may be necessary.
What is the purpose for determining a set of behavior categories and creating a list of specific behaviors to define each category before making behavioral observation?
In this chapter, we introduced the observational research design, the survey research design, and the case study research design as examples of descriptive research strategies. What differentiates
In addition to the key words, you should also be able to Define each of the following terms:Descriptive research strategyBehavioral observationHabituationBehavior categoriesInter-rater
Describe how the third-variable problem and the directionality problem limit the interpretation of results from correlational research designs.
Describe how the reliability of a personality test could be established using the results from a correlational study.
Explain the difference between a linear relationship and a monotonic relationship and identify which correlation is used to measure each.
Suppose that there is a negative relationship between grade point average and the number of hours spent playing video games for high-school boys. What grades would you predict for boys who spend more
Describe the pattern that would appear in a scatter plot showing the data points for each of the following correlations: r = –0.9 and r = +0.3.
Each of the following studies examines the relationship between sugar consumption and activity level for preschool children. Identify which is correlational, which is experimental, and which is
Explain how the purpose of a correlational study differs from the purpose of an experimental study.
In addition to the key words, you should also be able to Define each of the following terms:Scatter plotLinear relationshipPearson correlationMonotonic relationshipSpearman correlationStatistical
A researcher has demonstrated that a new noncompetitive physical education program significantly improves self-esteem for children in a kindergarten program.a. What additional information can be
A two-factor analysis of variance is used to evaluate the significance of the mean differences for the two-factor research study shown in the following table. The study is evaluating the effects of
A researcher would like to use a factorial study to compare two programs designed to help people stop smoking. The smoking behavior of each participant will be measured at the beginning of the
For a two-factor research study with two levels for factor A and four levels for factor B, how many participants are needed to obtain five scores in each treatment condition for each of the following
In Figure 11.5, we show three combinations of main effects and interactions for a 2 × 2 factorial design. Using the same 2 × 2 structure, with factor A defining the rows and factor B defining the
Explain what is meant by the concept that main effects and interactions are independent.
Explain why the main effects in a factorial study may not provide an accurate description of the results.
The following data show the pattern of results that was obtained in a study by Liguori and Robinson (2001) examining how different levels of alcohol and caffeine consumption influenced response time
Suppose a researcher conducts a two-factor study comparing two treatments (I and II) for college graduates versus adults with no college experience. The structure of the study is shown in the
In a classic study, Shrauger (1972) examined the effect of an audience on performance for two groups of participants: high self-esteem and low self-esteem individuals. The participants in the study
In addition to the key words, you should also be able to define the following terms:Two-factor designSingle-factor designLevelsThree-factor designHigher-order factorial design
The college offers all students an optional seminar on note taking and study skills. Suppose that a researcher compares personality scores for students who elected to take the seminar with the scores
Identify the appropriate statistical test for each of the following non-experimental and quasi-experimental designs.a. A differential designb. A cross-sectional design comparing children at ages 10,
Although the cohort effect can be a serious problem for cross-sectional research, it is not a problem for longitudinal designs. Explain why not.
A researcher wants to describe how fine motor skills change as a group of infants age from 18 to 24 months. Describe how this study could be done as a cross-sectional design. Next, describe how this
Explain how a time-series design minimizes most threats to internal validity from time-related variables.
What characteristic differentiates a pretest–posttest design from a time-series design?
To evaluate the effectiveness of a new television commercial, a researcher measures attitudes toward the advertised product for a group of consumers before and after they view the commercial.
Describe the basic characteristics of a pre–post design and explain why these designs are not true experiments.
A researcher wants to describe the effectiveness of a new program (compared to the old program) for teaching reading to elementary school children. Describe how this study could be done as a
A researcher measures personality characteristics for a group of participants who successfully lost weight in a diet program, and compared their scores with a second group consisting of individuals
Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) conducted a series of studies comparing the effectiveness of taking classroom notes on laptops versus writing longhand. In one study, students were instructed to use
Give an example of a situation (aside from gender) in which a researcher must examine preexisting groups.
Explain why we can be more confident about causal relationships between variables when a quasi-experimental design is used instead of a nonexperimental design.
Why are studies that examine the effects of aging not considered true experiments?
Explain the distinction between experimental and nonexperimental research strategies.
Define the following terms:Individual differencesDifferential effectsHistoryInstrumentationOrder effectsMaturationStatistical regressionInterrupted time-series designsSingle-case, or single-subject
At the beginning of this chapter, we described a study in which participants shouted either a swear word or a neutral word over and over while holding one hand in a bowl of ice water. The study
Describe the disadvantages of a multiple-treatment design, compared to a two-treatment design, for a within-subjects experiment.
Explain how a matched-subjects design attempts to avoid the major problem with between-subjects experiments (individual differences) and the major problem with within-subjects experiments
Explain why partial counterbalancing is sometimes necessary.
Describe the circumstances in which counterbalancing is used and explain what it is trying to accomplish.
Under what circumstances is it advisable to switch to a between-subjects design instead of using a within-subjects design?
Time-related factors and order effects can threaten internal validity for some within-subjects experiments. Describe the kind of study for which these factors can be a problem and explain how they
Describe the characteristics of a within-subjects experimental research design.
In addition to the key words, you should also be able to define the following terms:Within-subjects designRepeated-measures designPracticeFatigueContrast effectComplete counterbalancingPartial
Identify the advantages of a multiple-group design compared to an experiment with only two groups.
Describe the advantages of a two-group design compared to an experiment with more than two groups.
Describe some of the problems that can arise when the participants in one treatment condition of a between-subjects experiment are allowed to communicate with participants in a different condition.

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