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the analysis of biological data

The Analysis Of Biological Data 3rd Edition Michael C. Whitlock, Dolph Schluter - Solutions

Identify whether each of the following statements is more appropriate as the null hypothesis or as the alternative hypothesis in a test:a. Hypothesis: The number of hours preschool children spend watching television affects how they behave with other children when at day care.b. Hypothesis: Most
What effect does reducing the value of the significance level from 0.05 to 0.01 have on:a. The probability of committing a Type I error?b. The probability of committing a Type II error?c. The power of a test?d. The sample size?
Assume a random sample. What effect does increasing the sample size have ona. The probability of committing a Type I error?b. The probability of committing a Type II error?c. The power of a test?d. The significance level?
Tikal National Park in Guatemala is heavily visited by tourists. Does the disturbance affect animal densities? To investigate, Hidinger (1996) compared the densities of various bird and mammal species in places immediately next to heavily visited ruins to places in the park that were rarely visited
In the toad experiment (Example 6.2), what would the P-value have been ifa. 15 toads were right-handed and the rest were left-handed?b. 13 toads were right-handed and the rest were left-handed?c. 10 toads were right-handed and the rest were left-handed?d. 7 toads were right-handed and the rest
The following table gives either the power or the probability of a Type II error for a number of studies. Fill in the missing information. Study a.a. b.b. C.C. d.d. Power 0.750.75 0.310.31 Type II error rate 0.80.8 0.20.2
A scientist tests the null hypothesis that the mean height of plants in their population is 0.75 meters, as it is in a nearby population observed with a complete census of all plants. Assume that this null hypothesis is true.However, the plants in his sample were chosen non-randomly, and the
For the following alternative hypotheses, give the appropriate null hypothesis.a. Pygmy mammoths and continental mammoths differ in their mean femur lengths.b. Patients who take phentermine and topiramate lose weight at a different rate than control patients without these drugs.c. Patients who
Identify whether each of the following statements is more appropriate as a null hypothesis or an alternative hypothesis.a. Hypothesis: The number of hours that grade-school children spend doing homework predicts their future success on standardized tests.b. Hypothesis: King cheetahs on average
State the most appropriate null and alternative hypotheses for each of the following experiments or observational studies:a. A test of whether cigarette smoking causes lung cancerb. An experiment to test whether mean herbivore damage to a genetically modified crop plant differs from that in the
Imagine that two researchers independently carry out clinical trials to test the same null hypothesis, that COX-2 selective inhibitors (which are used to treat arthritis) have no effect on the risk of cardiac arrest. They use the same population for their study, but one experimenter uses a sample
Refer to Problem 28. The researchers also found that 11 of 12 participants showed improved accuracy in the exposed nostril after 21 days.a. Carry out the four steps of hypothesis testing, to test whether accuracy scores changed after 21 days in the exposed nostrils of participants. Usesignificance
A group of researchers tested whether snakes tend to choose a warm resting site when both a warm site and a cool site are presented to them. Their hypotheses were H0 Snakes do not prefer the warmer site. HA Snakes prefer the warmer site. They carried out the experiment and with their data
Can parents distinguish their own children by smell alone? To investigate, Porter and Moore (1981) gave new T-shirts to children of nine mothers.Each child wore his or her shirt to bed for three consecutive nights. During the day, from waking until bedtime, the shirts were kept in individually
A study showed that the sex ratio of children born to families in a native community of Ontario deviated significantly from the continental average ratio. A newspaper report about this study claimed that “there was only a 1-percent probability that the results were due to chance.” What do you
Does being told how a suspenseful story will end ruin the experience for the reader? Movie and book critics are careful to avoid giving too much away in their reviews. But the impact of such “spoilers” has only recently been tested scientifically (Leavitt and Christenfeld 2011). Students were
In many animal species, individuals communicate using ultraviolet (UV) signals, such as bright patches of skin or feathers, that are visible to one another but invisible to humans. Secondi et al. (2012) investigated the role of UV colors as sexual signals in two closely related species of
Dondorp et al. (2010) carried out a large clinical trial that compared effectiveness of two drugs, artesunate and quinine, for treatment of African children having severe malaria. They used the results to test the null hypothesis that the proportion of children dying was the same in the two
A team of researchers conducted 100 independent hypothesis tests using a significance level of a. If all 100 null hypotheses were true, what is the probability that the researchers would reject none of them?b. If all 100 null hypotheses were true, how many of these tests on average are expected
Calculation practice: Binomial probabilities. Enterococcus bacteria are part of the normal intestinal flora of humans, but some strains can cause disease. In U.S. hospitals, 30% of pathogenic isolates are resistant to the antibiotic vancomycin (Wenzel 2004). Assume that seven independent pathogenic
Calculation practice: Binomial test. Do people typically use a particular ear preferentially when listening to strangers? Marzoli and Tomassi (2009) had a researcher approach and speak to strangers in a noisy nightclub. An observer scored whether the person approached turned either the left or
In 1955, John Wayne played Genghis Khan in a movie called The Conqueror. It was not an artistic success. More unfortunately, the movie was filmed downwind of the site of 11 previous aboveground nuclear bomb tests. Of the 220 people who worked on this movie, 91 had been diagnosed with cancer by the
In the United States, paper currency often comes into contact with cocaine either directly, during drug deals or usage, or in counting machines where it wears off from one bill to another. A forensic survey collected fifty $1 bills and measured the cocaine content of the bills. Forty-six of the
The mite Demodex folliculorum lives in the hair follicles of humans, including the follicles of the eyelashes. (The bluish creatures in the photo on the first page of this chapter are these mites. The yellowish shaft in the photo is a human hair.) Having heard that “most people” have these
For the following scenarios, state whether the binomial distribution would describe the probability distribution of possible outcomes. If not, explain why not.a. The number of red cards out of the first five cards drawn from the top of a regular, randomly shuffled deck of cards.b. The number of
In the garden spider Araneus diadematus, the female often attempts to eat the male before or after mating, making sex a daunting prospect for the males. (This seemingly bizarre behavior, called sexual cannibalism, is not uncommon in the animal world.) In a series of mating observations, the
As our planet warms, as it has done for the last century or so, the change in temperature will have major effects on life. There are basically three possibilities for what might happen to a species: it can evolve to be better adapted to the new temperature, it can move closer to the poles so that
Imaine that there were two studies of the prevalence of melanism (solid black coat color) in leopards. One estimated that the proportion of black leopards in this population was 52%, with a 95% confidence interval that ranged from 46% to 58%. The other study estimated the proportion to be 64% with
Mice have litters of several pups at once. The pups are arranged in a line within the mother’s uterus, so many fetuses lie between two of their siblings. It has been shown that female fetuses located between two male fetuses (2M) experience higher testosterone levels than those adjacent to no
A giant vat contains large numbers of two types of bacteria, called strain A and strain B. Assume that 30% of the bacteria in the vat are strain A, and the other 70% are strain B. The vat is well mixed. Twenty technicians each collect a random sample of 15 cells from the vat and then determine
Twelve six-sided dice are rolled. Assume all of the dice are fair.a. How many threes do you expect, on average, out of these 12 rolls?b. What is the probability of rolling no threes out of the 12 rolls?c. What is the probability of rolling exactly 3 threes out of the 12 rolls?d. On average,
A common perception is that people suffering from chronic illness may be able to delay their deaths until after a special upcoming event, like Christmas. Out of 12,028 deaths from cancer in either the week before or after Christmas, 6052 happened in the week before (Young and Hade 2004).a. What is
In 1964, Ehrlich and Raven proposed that plant chemical defenses against attack by herbivores would spur plant diversification. In a test of this idea (Farrell et al. 1991), the number of species in 16 pairs of sister clades whose species differed in their level of chemical protection were
The Global Amphibian Assessment in 2005 declared that 1856 out of 5743 of the known species of amphibians worldwide are at risk of extinction.(Approximately 122 species have gone extinct already since 1980.) Amphibians are vulnerable to environmental change, so they are thought to be a bellwether
A survey in the U.K. interviewed shoppers encountered in grocery stores about whether they had ever received injuries as a result of food or drink packaging, such as cuts sustained while cleaning up broken glass containers (Winder et al. 2002). Of the 200 who agreed to participate, 109 had received
A Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) survey of 200 randomly chosen Australian pet owners found that 10 said that they had met their partner through owning the pet (RSPCA 2005). Find the 95% confidence interval for the proportion of Australian pet owners who find love
One classical experiment on ESP (extrasensory perception) tests for the ability of an individual to show telepathy—to read the mind of another individual. This test uses five cards with different designs, all known to both participants. In a trial, the “sender” sees a randomly chosen card and
In a test of Murphy’s law, pieces of toast were buttered on one side and then dropped. Murphy’s law predicts that they will land butter-side down.Out of 9821 slices of toast dropped, 6101 landed butter-side down. (Believe it or not, these are real data!)a. What is a 95% confidence interval for
Out of 67,410 surgeries tracked in a study in the U.K., 2832 were followed by surgical site infections (Coello et al. 2005).a. What is a 95% confidence interval for the proportion of surgeries followed by surgical site infection in the U.K.? Assume that the data are a random sample.b. If the
Each member of a large genetics class grows 12 pea plants from an independent pea family. Each family is expected to have 3/43/4 plants with smooth peas and 1/41/4 plants with wrinkled peas. a. On average, how many wrinkled pea plants will a student see in her 12 plants?b. What is the standard
Juvenile long-tailed tits (Aegithalos caudatus), a European relative of the chickadee, “help” adult birds raise offspring, such as by feeding their nestlings. What is the evolutionary advantage of helping behavior: practice for parenthood; increased changes of inheriting the adults’ territory
In a blind taste test, do people prefer pâté or dog food? To investigate, Bohannon et al. (2010) presented 18 college-educated adults with unlabeled samples of dog food (Newman’s Own Organics Canned Turkey & Chicken) and four meat products meant for humans (duck liver mousse, pork liver pâté,
Mood variation is related to photoperiod in some people, and the likelihood of depression increases in the winter months. As a result, people often assume that suicide rates increase in winter. A study in Finland (Valtonen et al. 2006) divided the year 1997 into equal halves and compared the number
Biff and Dilara were having an argument over what fraction of people would likely go out of their way to drive over a live organism if it were standing innocently by the side of the road. Dilara, whose heart is pure, guessed that fewer than 2% of people would behave that badly—roughly the
Biff and Dilara were arguing over a news feed about a population of catfish (Silurus glanis) in France that had figured out how to hunt feral pigeons. A submerged catfish lying in wait would rush into shallow water (like a killer whale beaching itself when hunting seals), grab a pigeon that had
The Cook pine tree is native to New Caledonia but has been planted as an ornamental in many countries. The trees tend to lean to one side as they grow. Johns et al. (2017) measured the tilt in 256 individual trees around the world. They found that 233 trees leaned toward the equator (in the
Refer to Practice Problem 16.a. Plot the null probability distribution for this case.b. What is the meaning of this distribution?Data from problem 16In 1964, Ehrlich and Raven proposed that plant chemical defenses against attack by herbivores would spur plant diversification. In a test of this
Bombardier beetles Pheropsophus jessoensis eject a hot chemical spray from the tip of their abdomens when attacked. Does this sometimes improve their survival? As part of a study to test this possibility, Sugiura and Sato (2018) presented a single beetle to each of 23 toads, Bufo japonicus. All
You are working in a lab and need to have five clean Petri plates for your experiment tomorrow. You have eight plates prepared, but previous experience tells you that 10% of them will, on average, be contaminated and unusable by tomorrow. What is the probability that you will have six or more
The parasitic nematode Camallanus oxycephalus infects many freshwater fish, including shad. The following table gives the number of nematodes per fish (Shaw et al. 1998):a. Produce a graph of the data. What type of graph is most appropriate?b. Calculate the frequencies expected if nematodes
Soccer reaches its apex every four years at the World Cup, attracting worldwide attention and fanatic devotion. The World Cup is widely thought to be the event that decides the best soccer team in the world. But how much do skill differences determine the outcome? If the probability of a goal is
Some people have suggested that Alzheimer disease may be at least partially caused by a contagious agent. If this were true, one might expect that people who come into contact with brain tissue may be more likely to be exposed to such contagion. Lollis et al. (2010) found that 14 of 7163 male
Each of the following examples could be addressed with a goodness-of-fit test. From the information given, how many categories and how many degrees of freedom would each test have? Explain your answers.a. A die is rolled 50 times to test whether it is fair—whether it has a chance of coming up
Practice Problem 5 from Chapter 7 gave data about the death rates of people working on the movie The Conqueror. Test whether the cancer rates in this group were different from the expected rate of 14%.Data from problem 5In 1955, John Wayne played Genghis Khan in a movie called The Conqueror. It was
The following list gives the number of degrees of freedom and the test statistic for several goodness-of-fit tests. Find the P-value for each test as specifically as possible from Statistical Table A. If you can, find the P-values more exactly by using a computer program. x2x²
Imagine that a small hospital’s emergency room has an average of 20 admissions per Saturday night. If you were a doctor working overtime on such a Saturday night, you might want to know the probability of having a quiet night, one that would let you catch up on some much-needed sleep. Let’s
In North America, between 100 million and 1 billion birds die each year by crashing into windows on buildings, more than any other human-related cause. This figure represents up to 5% of all birds in the area. One possible solution is to construct windows angled downward slightly, so that they
Practice Problem 15 from Chapter 7 gave data about death rates from cancer before and after Christmas. Use these data to test whether the holiday affects death rates. Data from problem 15A common perception is that people suffering from chronic illness may be able to delay their deaths until after
In the 19th century, cavalries were still an important part of the European military complex. While horses have many wonderful qualities, they can be dangerous beasts, especially if poorly treated. The Prussian army kept track of the number of fatalities caused by horse kicks to members of 10 of
If each “success” happens independently of all other successes and with the same probability, what probability distribution is expected for each of the following?a. Number of flowers in square-meter blocks in an alpine fieldb. Number of heads out of 10 flips of a coinc. Number of bombs
Cummings et al. (2003) estimate that the relative risk of death in a vehicle crash for occupants 16 to 34 years old who were wearing a seatbelt was 0.36 compared to those not wearing a seatbelt. Interpret this statement.
Truffles are a great delicacy, sending thousands of mushroom hunters into the forest each fall to find them. A set of plots of equal size in an oldgrowth forest in Northern California was surveyed to count the number of truffles (Waters et al. 1997). The resulting distribution is presented in the
Are the outcomes of hospital care different on weekends than weekdays?In a random sample of 500 patients who experienced severe medical complications after admission to acute care wards in three U.S. states from 1999 and 2001, 119 had been admitted on a weekend and 381 had been admitted on a
A more recent study of Feline High-Rise Syndrome (FHRS) (see Chapter 1, Example 1.2) included data on the month in which each of 119 cats fell (Vnuk et al. 2004). The data are in the accompanying table. Can we infer that the rate of cat falling varies between months of the year?Data from example
Hurricanes hit the United States often and hard, causing some loss of life and enormous economic costs. They are ranked in severity by the Saffir–Simpson scale, which ranges from Category 1 to Category 5, with 5 being the worst. In some years, as many as three hurricanes that rate a Category 3 or
Refer to Assignment Problem 22. The researchers used gas chromatographic analysis to extract and identify eight major volatile chemicals present in the host plants (tomato). They tested each of these chemicals separately using the same experimental design to determine whether dodder seedlings would
In snapdragons, variation in flower color is determined by a single gene (Hartl and Jones 2005). RR individuals are red, Rr (heterozygous) individuals are pink, and rr individuals are white. In a cross between heterozygous individuals, the expected ratio of red flowered: pink flowered:
Spot the flaw. Tabershaw and Lamm (1977) compared the observed and expected numbers of different leukemia types in a study group of workers who had been exposed to benzene during their employment. They were testing a previous suggestion that exposure to benzene increases the probability of acute
Seedlings of the parasitic plant Cuscuta pentagona (dodder) hunt by directing growth preferentially toward nearby host plants. Lacking eyes, or even a nervous system, how do they detect their victims? To investigate the possibility that the parasite detects volatile chemicals produced by host
Consider an isolated population of humans in which some individuals are infected with a specific parasite species (e.g., malaria or a filarial worm). Think of two biological hypotheses for why the number of parasite individuals per person may not be well described by a Poisson distribution. Which
The National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (Consumer Product Safety Commission 2018) recorded the number of injuries associated with computers and video games. A sample of these injuries (all severe enough to merit admission to an emergency room) is recorded in the table below, according to
The National Electronic Injury Surveillance System tracks injuries reported from hospital admissions across the United States (Consumer Product Safety Commission 2018). For the data in 2017, we extracted all incidences of hand injuries that referenced punching a wall. There were 1843 such cases.
African swine fever virus is a disease of wild boars that is spread in part by contact between living pigs and the carcasses of dead pigs. As part of an investigation into the patterns of contact between living and dead pigs, researchers placed cameras near pig carcasses in the woods
Calculation practice: Odds ratio. Use the data from Problem 1 on coffee drinking and prostate cancer.a. What are the odds of advanced prostate cancer for high-coffee consumers?b. What are the odds of advanced prostate cancer for non–coffee drinkers?c. What is the odds ratio of advanced
Calculation practice: relative risk. Wilson et al. (2011) followed a set of male health professionals for 20 years. Of all the men in the study, 7890 drank no coffee and 2492 drank on average more than six cups per day. In the “no-coffee” group, 122 developed advanced prostate cancer during the
The common pigeon found in most American cities is derived from a domesticated European species released in North America. As a result, the pigeons in North America have variations in coloration caused by genes previously selected by pigeon fanciers. An example is the rump, whose feathers are white
Female Australian redback spiders, Latrodectus hasselti, are about 50 times larger than males and often eat the males during mating. This might sound like a horrible accident, but males could gain some indirect advantage by being cannibalized in this way. Perhaps a female is more likely to accept
Malaria, which kills more than a million people each year worldwide, is caused by a Plasmodium that spreads between hosts by infected mosquitoes. The more people bitten by each infected mosquito, the higher the transmission rates of malaria. Does infection by Plasmodium cause a mosquito to bite
Fires are a common and important part of many ecosystems. Many species have evolved mechanisms for dealing with fire. Reed frogs, a species living in West Africa, have been observed hopping away from grass fires long before the heat of the fire reached the area they were in. This finding led to the
Some fish are famously able to develop into either sex, depending on social circumstances. One study of a coral reef fish, the goby Gobiodon erythrospilus, placed juvenile fish with either an adult male or an adult female (Hobbs et al. 2004).Of the 12 juveniles placed with a male, 11 became female.
Between 20 and 25 violent acts are portrayed per hour in children’s television programming. A study (Johnson et al. 2002) of the possible link between TV viewing and aggression followed the TV-viewing habits of children between 1 and 10 years old. Of these children, 88 watched less than one hour
A study by Doll et al. (1994) examined the relationship between moderate intake of alcohol and the risk of heart disease. In all, 410 men (209 “abstainers” and 201 “moderate drinkers”) were observed over a period of 10 years, and the number experiencing cardiac arrest over this period was
Postnatal depression affects approximately 8–15% of new mothers. One theory about the onset of postnatal depression predicts that it may result from the stress of a complicated delivery. If so, then the rates of postnatal depression could be affected by the type of delivery. A study (Patel et al.
Migraine with aura is a potentially debilitating condition, yet little is known about its causes. A case-control study compared 93 people who suffer from chronic migraine with aura (cases) to a sample of 93 healthy patients (controls; Schwerzmann et al. 2005). The researchers used transesophageal
The hypothetical plots below show the relative frequencies of subjects assigned to two experimental groups (treatment and control). The frequency of negative outcomes (red) and positive outcomes (gold) is illustrated. For each plot (a), (b), and (c), identify the correct value of the odds ratio:
In animals without paternal care, the number of offspring sired by a male increases as the number of females he mates with increases. This fact has driven the evolution of multiple matings in the males of many species. It is less obvious why females mate multiple times, because it would seem that
New technical advances in diagnosis and screening are often expensive, and so their benefits must be evaluated. A study of a new screening procedure for heart disease, computerized tomographic angiography (CTA), examined 4146 patients who had stable chest pains (The SCOT-HEART Investigators 2018).
Treatment of patients whose injury might cause massive blood loss has involved giving them plasma transfusions after they had been admitted to the emergency room.Sperry et al. (2018) investigated whether earlier use of this treatment—by emergency first responders before patients reached the
Some people feel that they have good intuition about when others are lying, while others do not feel they have this ability. Are the more “intuitive” people better able to detect lies? Each of 100 people who thought they had good intuitive abilities was shown a video clip of a person stating
Spot the flaw. Scottish researchers compared rates of depression between 94 undergraduates who regularly kept diaries and 41 students who did not. They found that people who kept diaries were more likely to have depression than those who did not. The researchers said, “We expected diary-keepers
It is well known, and scientifically documented, that yawning is contagious. When we see someone else yawn, or even think about someone yawning, we are very likely to yawn ourselves. (In fact, we predict that you are starting to want to yawn right now.)In a study of yawning contagion, researchers
Aging workers of the Neotropical termite, Neocapritermes taracua, develop blue crystal-containing glands (“backpacks”) on their backs. When they fight intruding termites and are hampered, these “blue” termites explode, and the glands spew a sticky liquid (Šobotník et al. 2012). The
Day care centers expose children to a wider variety of germs than the children would be exposed to if they stayed at home more often. This has the obvious downside of more frequent colds and other illnesses, but it also serves to challenge the immune system of children at a critical stage in their
Keenan et al. (2001) used anesthesia to investigate which brain hemisphere is involved in self-recognition. Ten subjects were randomly assigned to two groups. The left hemisphere was anesthetized in one group, whereas the right hemisphere was anesthetized in the other group. Each subject was then
Eggebeen et al. (2010) found that men who at some point in their lives are fathers are more likely to have altruistic social relationships and be involved in community service organizations. This result was reported in the popular press (Jacobs 2009) as “Fatherhood … alters a man’s
Male Drosophila become sterile when exposed to moderately high temperatures, because sperm are damaged by heat at much lower temperatures than other cells.Rohmer et al. (2004) asked whether flies from warmer climates are adapted to higher temperatures. They collected flies from France (where it is
Spot the flaw. After golden monkeys fight with each other, opponents seem to reconcile. Ren et al. (1991) tested whether the behavior of golden monkeys after spontaneous conflicts differed from behavior at normal times. They recorded a large number of behaviors between individuals in two troops
Vampire bats, as their name implies, feed almost exclusively on blood. A bat must feed every day or it will starve to death, but bats are not always successful at finding a blood meal. Perhaps for this reason, they roost during the day in communal groups and sometimes share blood by regurgitative
It is common wisdom that death of a spouse can lead to health deterioration of the partner left behind. Is common wisdom right or wrong in this case? To investigate, Maddison and Viola (1968) measured the degree of health deterioration of 132 widows in the Boston area, all of whose husbands had
We are often happy to do favors for other people when they have a particular need. For example, we are more willing to let someone use a photocopier when they ask, “Can I go in front of you, because I am in a rush?” than when they give no reason: “Can I go in front of you?” Some researchers

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