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the analysis of biological data

The Analysis Of Biological Data 3rd Edition Michael C. Whitlock, Dolph Schluter - Solutions

There is evidence that higher consumption of foods containing chemicals called flavanols—including cocoa, red wine, green tea, and some fruits— increases brain function in several ways. Messerli (2012) asked whether chocolate consumption in a country is correlated with the number of Nobel
Cocaine is thought to affect the brain by blocking the dopamine transporter, increasing the amount of dopamine in the nerve synapse. To investigate this idea, Volkow et al. (1997) administered intravenous doses of 0.3 to 0.6 mg/kg of cocaine to volunteers. They used PET scans to compare the
Both of the variables in Assignment Problem 19 are measurements that include some measurement error.a. How would this measurement error affect the correlation between the two variables?b. What steps could be taken in the design of the study to minimize the effect of measurement error?c. For a
If you are having trouble solving homework problems, should you sleep on it and try again in the morning? Huber et al. (2004) asked 10 participants to perform a complex spatial learning task on the computer just before going to sleep. EEG recordings were then taken of the electrical activity of
The following data are from a laboratory experiment by Smallwood et al. (1998) in which liver preparations from five rats were used to measure the relationship between the administered concentration of taurocholate (a salt normally occurring in liver bile) and the unbound fraction of taurocholate $Rat 11 22 33 44 Concentration (M) (M) 33 66 1212 2424 Unbound fraction 0.630.63 0.440.44 0.310.31 0.190.19$
In an increasingly urban world, are there psychological benefits to biodiversity? Fuller et al. (2007) measured the number of plant, bird, and butterfly species in 15 urban green spaces of varying size in Sheffield, England, a city of more than a half-million people. They also interviewed 312
Does stress age you? As part of an investigation, Epel et al. (2004) measured telomere length in blood mononuclear cells of healthy premenopausal women, each of whom was the biological mother and caregiver of a chronically ill child. Telomeres are complexes of DNA and protein that cap chromosomal
Left-handed people have an advantage in many sports, and it has been suggested that left-handedness might have been advantageous in hand-tohand fights in early societies. (Left-handed people can get a lot of practice against right-handed opponents, whereas right-handers are less experienced against
According to the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis, males of a species evolve high reproductive effort to the point that they divert resources away from immune function. To test this, Simmons and Roberts (2005) measured sperm viability and immune function in lab-raised male crickets to test
When measuring a correlation between two variables, under what circumstances would it be best to make and average several repeat measurements of each subject for a given variable rather than measure the variable only once on each subject?
Answer the following questions using the data for the godwits in Practice Problem 5.a. Adding 30 to each of the observations for males converts arrival dates to “days since March 1” rather than March 31. How is the correlation coefficient between arrival dates of males and females affected?
Birds of many species retain the same breeding partner year after year. In some of these species, male and female partners migrate separately and spend the winter in different places, often thousands of kilometers apart. Yet they manage to find one another again each spring. In a field study of
Visually estimate the value of the correlation coefficient in each of the four following scatter plots.(a)(b)(c)(d) Y ...
Calculation practice: Spearman rank correlation. As human populations became more urban from prehistory to the present, disease transmission between people likely increased. Over time, this might have led to the evolution of enhanced resistance to certain diseases in settled human populations. For
Calculation practice: Standard error and hypothesis testing for a correlation. Refer to Practice Problem 1. Test whether there is a correlation in the population between giggle fundamental frequency and age.a. State the null and alternative hypotheses.b. Calculate the standard error of the
Tukey–Kramer tests carried out on the results in Practice Problem 15 yielded the accompanying table of results. Groups refer to the number of genotypes in the corresponding treatment.a. Fill in the conclusions in the table.b. Write the sample means of the three treatment groups, from smallest
In a field experiment designed to investigate the role of genetic diversity in ecosystems, Reusch et al. (2005) planted eelgrass in plots in a shallow estuary in the Baltic Sea. Eighteen eelgrass shoots were planted in every plot. Some plots (randomly chosen) were planted with only one eelgrass
Tsetse flies are the vectors of human sleeping sickness and animal trypanosomiasis in Africa. The tsetse fly species Glossina palpalis feeds on the blood of a variety of animals, including humans, and an important question is whether the feeding preferences of individuals can be affected by
Pea aphids, Acyrthosiphon pisum, can be red or green. Weirdly, red aphids make carotenoids (red pigments) with genes that jumped from a fungus into the aphid genome some time during recent evolutionary history. What’s more, some red aphids start out red and then change to green later in
One way to assess whether a trait in males has a genetic basis is to determine how similar the measurements of that trait are among his offspring born to different, randomly chosen females. In a lab experiment, Kotiaho et al. (2001) randomly sampled 12 male dung beetles, Onthophagus taurus, and
The bright yellow head of the adult Egyptian vulture (see the photo at the beginning of the chapter) requires carotenoid pigments. These pigments cannot be synthesized by the vultures, so they must be obtained through their diet. Unfortunately, carotenoids are scarce in rotten flesh and bones, but
Use the data from Practice Problem 7 to solve this problem.a. Test whether mean PLP1 gene expression differs among the schizophrenia, bipolar, and control groups.b. What are your assumptions in part (a)?c. Is the analysis in part (a) a random-effects or fixed-effects ANOVA? Explain.d. What
In European earwigs, the males sometimes have long pincers protruding from the end of their abdomens, as shown in the accompanying photo.In graphs (a)-(c), we have plotted three frequency distributions of sample means of pincer lengths (in millimeters) based on random samples from an earwig
Suppose that a variable has a normal distribution, that the mean is 35 mm, and that 20% of the population is larger than 50 mm.a. What is the mode of this distribution?b. What is the median of this distribution?c. Complete the following sentence: Twenty percent of the distribution is smaller
Imagine a hypothetical experiment with multiple treatments but relatively small sample sizes within treatments. The goal is to test whether the treatment means are equal. Calculations and graphical analysis indicate that the data differ markedly from a normal distribution.a. What other two options
The ability to learn is a very useful skill, so it is not clear why more organisms have not evolved better learning abilities. One possibility is that learning is energetically expensive, and the evolution of learning may come with other costs that reduce life span or fecundity. Zwoinska et al.
Females of the bumblebee species Bombus terrestris can change from a non-reproductive worker to a reproductively mature individual under certain social conditions. Blacher et al. (2017) carried out an experiment to test whether such a switch affects bee longevity. One hundred focal 3- day-old
Infection by parasitic worms such as helminths can affect the immune response in ways that increase the susceptibility of hosts to infection by bacteria and viruses. Hence, treatment against helminths represents one way to combat microbial diseases. Ezenwa and Jolles (2015) investigated the effect
Computer optional: Refer to the previous problem. Download the African buffalo BTB data set from the book website. Focus on the variable survival of those individuals who became infected with BTB in the anthelmintic-treated and control buffalo.a. Draw a Kaplan–Meier curve to visualize survival
Computer optional: Refer to the previous question. Download the isopod data set from the book website and conduct the following analyses.a. Calculate the hazard ratio of successful burrows relative to unsuccessful burrows in the isopods.b. Interpret the hazard ratio in this context. What
Each spring, 9-month-old desert isopods (Hemilepistus reaumuri) emerge from their natal burrows and walk many hundreds of meters before settling into a new burrow. Settling is mainly done by females, with males joining afterward to form a mated pair. Burrows occupied by a pair can either succeed in
Huntington disease is an inherited neurodegenerative disease caused by a mutation in the huntingtin gene. When did this mutation arise? García-Planells et al. (2005) found that most Spanish cases of the disease share the same ancestral mutation. Using gene sequence data from patients at genetic
Identify which of the following cases would violate the assumptions of the Kaplan–Meier method.a. Patients are more likely to leave the study before the end of monitoring if they are relatively healthy than if they are relatively unhealthy.b. Patients who enter the study at an early calendar
Which of the following are true about the Kaplan–Meier method? Answer true or false.a. It assumes that the individuals in the study are randomly chosen from the population they represent.b. It assumes that the monitoring period of all individuals in the study commences on the same calendar
Refer to Assignment Problem 10. The following table lists log-likelihoods for a range of values of p between 0.1 and 0.3, in increments of 0.01.a. Using only our calculations based on these increments, identify the maximum likelihood estimate.b. Using these same calculations, generate a
The Mediterranean shrub Thymelaea hirsute has five sexual types, the most curious of which is “gender labile.” Such individuals change their predominant sex from year to year. Ramadan et al. (1994) found 13 gender-labile individuals in a sample of 68 shrubs from a single habitat in
Sacktor et al. (2000) measured the neuropsychological performance of 33 HIV-positive patients undergoing antiretroviral therapy. Hand-use performance improved in 23 of the 33 patients but deteriorated in the remaining 10 patients. The graph below shows the log likelihood curve for the population
Dispersal and the movement distance of organisms are sometimes described using a probability distribution known as the geometric distribution (see Practice Problem 7). For example, the following histograms show the number of home ranges separating the locations where individual male and female
Ants are capable of chemically discriminating between nestmates and non-nestmates. Ozaki et al. (2005) discovered sensory cells in the antennae of ants that respond only to the cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) of non-nestmates. They showed that 42 of 48 head-attached antenna preparations responded to
Life spans of individuals in a population often approximate an exponential distribution, a continuous probability distribution having probability density f(Y)=λe−λY, where λ is the mortality rate. To estimate the mortality rate of foraging honey bees, Visscher and Dukas (1997) recorded the
Is the perception of eye-gazing in humans acquired through experience, or is it innate? To test this, Farroni et al. (2002) presented 17 infants (3–5 days old) with paired photographs of faces. The face in one photograph had a direct gaze, whereas the other had an averted gaze (see image).
Examine the accompanying plots. Each is based on hypothetical data from an experiment with a categorical factor A and a continuous covariate X. In each case, indicate which of the main effects and interaction are likely to be present, and which are likely to be weak or absent.(a)(b)(c)
Langford et al. (2006) investigated whether lab mice experiencing discomfort “empathize” with familiar mice also in discomfort. They conducted an experiment in which individual mice were given an injection of 0.9% acetic acid into the abdomen, causing mild discomfort. These mice were placed in
Were Neanderthals smaller-brained than modern humans? Estimates of cranial capacity from fossils indicate that Neanderthals had large brains, but also that they had a large body size. The accompanying graph shows the data from Ruff et al. (1997) on estimated log-transformed brain and body sizes of
For each of the following scenarios, draw an interaction plot (like that in Figure 18.3-2) showing the results of a hypothetical experiment having two factors, A and B, each having two groups, in which there isa. A main effect of A, no main effect of B, and no interaction between A and B;b. A
In a study of the effects of commercial fishing on fish populations, Hsieh et al. (2006) measured the year-to-year coefficient of variation (CV) of larval population sizes of exploited and unexploited fish species in the California current system. They compared the two groups of fish species by
The tortoise beetle Deloyala guttata feeds and lays eggs on leaves of the two morning glory species Ipomea pandurata and I. purpurea. Rausher (1984) investigated whether there was genetic variation in the population in the relative abilities of beetles to exploit the two plant species. To test
Does light environment have an influence on the development of color vision? The accompanying data, from Fuller et al. (2010), are measurements of the relative abilities of bluefin killifish from two wild populations to detect short wavelengths of light (blue light in our own visible color
Females of the yellow dung fly, Scathophaga stercoraria, mate with multiple males, and the sperm of different males “compete” to fertilize her eggs. The last male to mate usually gains a disproportionate number of fertilizations. In a laboratory experiment on male and female dung flies from two
Certain natural populations of the plant Arabidopsis halleri have two genetically encoded leaf types. Some individuals have trichomes on the leaves (“hairy”) and others lack trichomes (“naked”). One hypothesis to explain the persistence of both leaf types over time is that if either leaf
In promiscuous species of mammals, such as deer mouse, the breeding success of males can be predicted from their testes size and the number of sperm they produce. Fisher et al. (2018) investigated whether testes size could be affected by the intrauterine environment of fetal mice. In particular,
Heusner (1991) assembled the following data on the mass and basal metabolic rate of 17 species of primates, including the potto shown in the accompanying photo.Previous research has indicated that basal metabolic rate (R) of mammal species depends on body mass (M) in the following way: R=αMβ ,
You might think that increasing the nutrient resources available would elevate the number of plant species that an area could support, but the evidence suggests otherwise. The data in the accompanying table are from the Park Grass Experiment at Rothamsted Experimental Station in the U.K., where
Previous evidence and some theory predict that the exponent β describing the relationship between metabolic rate and mass should equal 3/4. Using the data from Assignment Problem 20, test whether the exponent differs from the expected value of 3/4.Data from Problem 20You might think that
The white forehead patch of the male collared flycatcher is important in mate attraction. Griffith and Sheldon (2001) found that the length of the patch varied from year to year. They measured the forehead patch on a sample of 30 males in two consecutive years, 1998 and 1999, on the Swedish island
Many species live in a patchwork of local populations separated by inhospitable habitat. Local populations naturally go extinct (but can be later recolonized). Probability of extinction can be affected by the distance between locales. Jousimo et al. (2014) studied these effects with a large number
How do we estimate a regression relationship when each subject is measured multiple times over a series of X-values ? The easiest approach is to use a summary slope for each individual and then calculate the average slope. Green et al. (2001) dealt with exactly this type of problem in their study
Many species of beetle produce large horns that are used as weapons or shields. The resources required to build these horns, though, might be diverted from other useful structures. To test this, Emlen (2001) measured the sizes of wings and horns in 19 females of the beetle species Onthophagus
The parasitic bacterium Pasteuria ramosa castrates and later kills its host, the crustacean Daphnia magna. The length of time between infection and host death affects the number of spores eventually produced and released by the parasite, as the following scatter plot reveals. The x-axis measures
Theory in ecology predicts that species with a large number of individuals will be larger targets for diseases. Parker et al. (2015) tested the idea in grassland plants. They measured the abundance of each of 43 species of plants (calculated as percent cover) and used this to predict the mean
Golenda et al. (1999) carried out a human clinical trial to investigate the effectiveness of a formulation of DEET (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide) in preventing mosquito bites. The study applied DEET to the underside of the left forearm of volunteers. Cages containing 15 fresh mosquitoes were then placed
A lot of attention has been paid recently to portion size in restaurants, and how it may affect obesity in North Americans. Portions have grown greatly over the last few decades. But is this phenomenon new? Wansink and Wansink (2010) looked at representations of the Last Supper in European
Calculating the year of birth of cadavers is a tricky enterprise. One method proposed is based on the radioactivity of the enamel of the body’s teeth. The proportion of the radioisotope 14C in the atmosphere increased dramatically during the era of aboveground nuclear bomb testing between 1955
The warm temperatures of spring and summer arrive earlier now at high latitudes than they did in the past, as a result of human-caused climate change. One consequence is that many organisms start breeding earlier in the year than in previous years, often at suboptimal times. For example,
Scarlet king snakes (left photo) are relatively harmless snakes from the southeastern United States. Most individuals have a conspicuous color pattern very similar to the extremely venomous coral snake (right photo). The king snake mimics are thought to gain a survival advantage when coral snakes
Dads transmit many more new mutations than do mothers to their babies at conception. These mutations occur from copying errors during sperm production. There is increasing interest in the effect of father age on this process. As part of a larger study into the genetics of mental illness, Kong et
Species that depend on specific thermal environments might be expected to shift their geographic ranges northward and uphill as the world gets warmer, to track the temperatures that are best for them. If this temperature tracking occurs, then temperatures at the cool limit of a species’
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has a very high mutation rate. What are the effects of individual mutations on the fitness of the virus? Theys et al. (2018) measured the effect of each of many nonlethal mutations in the DNA polymerase (pol) gene on HIV virus fitness. Fitness was estimated
Dormant eggs of the zooplankton Daphnia survive in lake sediments for decades, making it possible to measure their physiological traits in past years. Hairston et al. (1999) extracted Daphnia eggs from sediment cores of Lake Constance in Europe to examine trends in resistance to dietary
When using analysis of variance, what are the main advantages of the following factors?a. Large sample size.b. Balanced design.
Head width was measured twice, in centimeters, on the random sample of 25 walking-stick insects described in Example 15.6. The data are as follows:a. Use ANOVA calculations to estimate the variance within groups for head width.b. Calculate the estimate of the variance among groups.c. What is the
An observational study gathered data on the rate of progression of multiple sclerosis in patients diagnosed with the disease at different ages. Differences in the mean rate of progression were tested among several groups that differed by age-of-diagnosis using ANOVA. The results gave P=0.12.From
The table on the next page presents mean cone size (mass) of lodgepole pine in 16 study sites in three types of environments in western North America (Edelaar and Benkman 2006). The three environments were islands of lodgepole pines in which pine squirrels were absent (an “island” here refers
Huey and Dunham (1987) measured the running speed of fence lizards, Sceloporus merriami, in Big Bend National Park in Texas. Individual lizards were captured and placed in a 2.3-meter raceway, where their running speeds were measured. Lizards were then tagged and released. The researchers returned
Mosquitoes contribute to more human deaths than any other organism, because they transmit diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, and yellow fever. Some of these diseases develop or grow inside the mosquito—a process that can take some time. Therefore, one possible strategy to reduce transmission
Does adding math to a scientific paper make readers think that it has more value? Eriksson (2012) sent two abstracts of scientific papers to 200 people with postgraduate degrees. For each participant, one of the abstracts was randomly chosen and had a meaningless sentence inserted describing an
The parasitoid wasp, Leptopilina heterotoma, injects eggs into young larvae of fruit flies, Drosophila melanogaster. One reaction by the flies is to self-medicate by consuming alcohol (ethanol), which is naturally present in the decaying fruits where they live. The ethanol reduces oviposition by
Refer to Assignment Problem 25.a. Illustrate the (transformed) data in a graph. Add means and error bars showing standard errors of means.b. The table at the bottom of the page shows partial results of Tukey–Kramer multiple comparisons of means. Complete the table by adding the test
Fiddler crabs are so called because males have a greatly enlarged “major” claw, which is used to attract females and to defend a burrow. Darnell and Munguia (2011) recently suggested that this appendage might also act as a heat sink, keeping males cooler while out of the burrow on hot days. To
Refer to Assignment Problem 27 on fiddler crab claws.a. The table at the bottom of the page shows partial results of Tukey–Kramer multiple comparisons of means. In what way does this method differ from the method identified in part (a)?b. Complete the table by adding the test
In some animal species, exposure to males reduces lifespan of females, because of the damage caused by harassment and male seminal fluids. In other species, exposure to other females is more harmful than exposure to males because of resource competition or aggressive interactions between
Alston’s singing mouse (Scotinomys teguina) and Chiriquí singing mice (S. xerampelinus) inhabitnonoverlapping elevation zones in the mountains of Central America. Experiments by Pasch et al.(2013) showed that the boundary between the two occupied zones is mediated by competition, andthat S.
In the accompanying graph of a normal distribution, each of the two red areas represents one-sixth of the area under the curve. Estimate the following quantities from this graph:a. The mean.b. The mode.c. The median.d. The standard deviation.e. The variance. Probability
The table at the top of the page lists the means and standard deviations of several different normal distributions. For each distribution, calculate the probability of drawing a single Y value greater than the given threshold and the probability of drawing a value less than that threshold. TABLE
The proportion of traffic fatalities resulting from drivers with high blood alcohol levels in 1982 was approximately normally distributed among U.S. states, with mean 0.569 and standard deviation 0.068 (U.S. Department of Transportation Traffic Safety Facts 1999).a. What proportion of states would
The crab spider. Thomisus spectabilis, sits on flowers and preys upon visiting honeybees, as shown in the photo at the beginning of the chapter. (Remember this the next time you sniff a wild flower.) Do honeybees distinguish between flowers that have crab spiders and flowers that do not? To test
The following table lists the mean and standard deviation of several different normal distributions. In each case, a sample of 20 individuals was taken, as well as a sample of 50 individuals. For each sample, calculate the probability that the mean of the sample was less than the given value. TABLE
Calculation practice: Confidence interval for a mean and one-sample t-testAs the world warms, the geographic ranges of species might shift toward cooler areas. Chen et al. (2011), studied recent changes in the highest elevation at which species occur. Typically, higher elevations are cooler than
The time it takes an individual popcorn kernel to pop conforms to a normal distribution very closely. Assume that the mean time to popping is 165.0 seconds with a standard deviation of 92.1 seconds.a. What is the probability that a kernel of popcorn would take longer than 200 seconds to
Calculation practice: Confidence interval for variance. Refer to Practice Problem 1. Using the data, calculate the 95% confidence interval for the variance with the following steps.a. What does the confidence interval refer to—the sample variance or the population variance?b. What assumptions
For each of the following, the mean, standard deviation, sample size, and desired confidence interval are given. Find the critical values of tt required for a confidence interval of the mean.a. Y̅ =14, s=32, n-12, 95% Y̅= 14, s = 32, n = 12, 95% confidence interval b. Y̅=-23, s=12, n=32, 95%
Refer to Practice Problem 3. For each of the parts (a)–(e), find the two χ2 critical values necessary to calculate a confidence interval of the variance.Data from practice problem 3 For each of the following, the mean, standard deviation, sample size, and desired confidence interval are given.
Here are the data on wolf upper jaws from Practice Problem 5, in centimeters. There are 35 individuals in this data set. Assume that this variable is normally distributed.a. Draw a graph to confirm that the frequency distribution of the data is roughly bell shaped.b. What are the sample mean and
Measurements of the distance between the canine tooth and last molar for 35 wolf upper jaws were made by a researcher. He found the 95% confidence interval for the mean to be 10.17 cm
The world’s largest terrestrial invertebrate is the coconut crab, Birgus latro, which lives on islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. (These crabs normally eat fruits, but they have been observed killing and eating large rats and seabirds.) These crabs are often endangered in the areas where
In the data set on wolf upper jaws (Practice Problem 6), each measurement was actually the average of two measurements made on the left and right sides of the jaw of an individual wolf. Thus, a total of 70 measurements were made. Could we use n=70 when calculating confidence intervals for the mean
Community ecologists draw “food webs” to describe the predator and prey relationships between all organisms living in an area. A theoretical model predicts that a measure of the structure of food webs called “diet discontinuity” should be zero. Diet discontinuity is a measure of the
As part of a larger study into the role of the hippocampus in memory, Fortin et al. (2004) devised a test that required rats to choose between two odors, one of which had previously been presented to them as the first in a series of odors. To validate their procedure, the researchers tested whether
The following tables give the confidence intervals of either the standard deviation or variance from different samples. Provide the confidence interval of the other measure of spread (i.e., either standard deviation or variance). Standard deviation 2.22
A four-year review at the Provincial Hospital in Alotau, Papua New Guinea (Barss 1984), found that about 1/40 of their hospital admissions were injuries due to falling coconuts. If coconuts weigh on average 3.2 kg, and the upper bound of the 95% confidence interval is 3.5 kg, what is the lower

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