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engineering
chemical engineering

Chemical Principles 7th edition Steven S. Zumdahl, Donald J. DeCoste - Solutions

For elements 1–36, there are two exceptions to the filling order as predicted from the periodic table. Draw the atomic orbital diagrams for the two exceptions, and indicate how many unpaired electrons are present.
Given the valence electron orbital level diagram and the description, identify the element or ion. a. A ground state atomb. An atom in an excited state (assume two electrons occupy the 1s orbital) c. A ground state ion with a charge of €“1
X rays have wavelengths on the order of 1 × 10-10 m. Calculate the energy of 1.0 × 10-10 m X rays in units of kilojoules per mole of X rays. AM radio waves have wavelengths on the order of 1 × 104 m. Calculate the energy of 1.0 × 104 m radio waves in units of kilojoules per mole of radio waves.
How many valence electrons do each of the following elements have, and what are the specific valence electrons for each element? a. Ca b. O c. element 117 d. In e. Ar f. Bi
In the ground state of mercury (Hg), a. How many electrons occupy atomic orbitals with n = 3? b. How many electrons occupy d atomic orbitals? c. How many electrons occupy pz atomic orbitals? d. How many electrons have spin “up” (ms = + 1/2)?
In the ground state of element 115, Uup, a. how many electrons have n = 5 as one of their quantum numbers? b. how many electrons have ℓ = 3 as one of their quantum numbers? c. how many electrons have mℓ = 1 as one of their quantum numbers? d. how many electrons have ms = – 1/2 as one of their
Give possible values for the quantum numbers of the valence electrons in an atom of titanium (Ti).
One bit of evidence that the quantum mechanical model is “correct” lies in the magnetic properties of matter. Atoms with unpaired electrons are attracted by magnetic fields and thus are said to exhibit paramagnetism. The degree to which this effect is observed is directly related to the number
Which of elements 1–36 have two unpaired electrons in the ground state?
Which of elements 1–36 have one unpaired electron in the ground state?
A certain oxygen atom has the electron configuration 1s22s22px22py2. How many unpaired electrons are present? Is this an excited state for oxygen? In going from this state to the ground state, would energy be released or absorbed?
How many unpaired electrons are present in each of the following in the ground state: O, O+, O-, Os, Zr, S, F, Ar?
Which of the following electron configurations correspond to an excited state? Identify the atoms, and write the ground- state electron configuration where appropriate. a. 1s22s23p1 c. 1s22s22p43s1 b. 1s22s22p6 d. [Ar] 4s23d54p1
The work function of an element is the energy required to remove an electron from the surface of the solid. The work function for lithium is 279.7 kJ/ mol (that is, it takes 279.7 kJ of energy to remove 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole of Li atoms on the surface of Li metal). What is the maximum
Explain why the first ionization energy tends to increase as one proceeds from left to right across a period. Why is the first ionization energy of aluminum lower than that of magnesium and the first ionization energy of sulfur lower than that of phosphorus?
Why do the successive ionization energies of an atom always increase? Note the successive ionization energies for silicon given in Table. Would you expect to see any large jumps between successive ionization energies of silicon as you removed all the electrons, one by one, beyond those shown in the
The radius trend and the ionization energy trend are exact opposites. Does this make sense? Define electron affinity. Electron affinity values are both exothermic (negative) and endothermic (positive). However, ionization energy values are always endothermic (positive). Explain.
Arrange the following groups of atoms in order of in-creasing size. a. Te, S, Se d. Rb, Na, Be b. K, Br, Ni e. Sr, Se, Ne c. Ba, Si, F f. Fe, P, O
Arrange the atoms in Exercise 97 in order of increasing first ionization energy. Atoms in Exercise 97 a. Te, S, Se d. Rb, Na, Be b. K, Br, Ni e. Sr, Se, Ne c. Ba, Si, F f. Fe, P, O
In each of the following sets, which atom or ion has the smallest ionization energy? a. Ca, Sr, Ba b. K, Mn, Ga c. N, O, F d. S2-, S, S2+ e. Cs, Ge, Ar
In each of the following sets, which atom or ion has the smallest radius? a. H, He b. Cl, In, Se c. Element 120, element 119, element 117 d. Nb, Zn, Si e. Na-, Na, Na+
The first ionization energies of As and Se are 0.947 MJ/ mol and 0.941 MJ/mol, respectively. Rationalize these values in terms of electron configurations.
Rank the elements Be, B, C, N, and O in order of increasing first ionization energy. Explain your reasoning.
Three elements have the electron configurations 1s22s22p63s23p6, 1s22s22p63s2, and 1s22s22p63s23p64s1. The first ionization energies of these elements (not in the same order) are 0.419, 0.735, and 1.527 MJ/ mol. The atomic radii are 1.60, 0.98, and 2.35 Å. Identify the three elements, and match
Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom in the gas phase. The ionization energy of gold is 890.1 kJ/ mol. Is light with a wavelength of 225 nm capable of ionizing a gold atom (removing an electron) in the gas phase?
Predict some of the properties of element 117 (symbol Uus following conventions proposed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry [IUPAC]). a. What will be its electron configuration? b. What element will it most resemble chemically? c. What will be the formulas of the neutral
Order each of the following sets from the least exothermic electron affinity to the most. a. F, Cl, Br, I b. N, O, F
In the second row of the periodic table, Be, N, and Ne all have endothermic (unfavorable) electron affinities, whereas the other second- row elements have exothermic (favorable) electron affinities. Rationalize why Be, N, and Ne have unfavorable electron affinities.
The electron affinities of the elements from aluminum to chlorine are 244 kJ/ mol, 2120 kJ/ mol, 274 kJ/ mol, 2200.4 kJ/ mol, and 2348.7 kJ/ mol, respectively. Rationalize the trend in these values.
Use data in this chapter to determine the following. a. The electron affinity of Mg2+ b. The electron affinity of Al+ c. The ionization energy of Cl- d. The ionization energy of Cl e. The electron affinity of Cl+
For each of the following pairs of elements, (C and N) (Ar and Br) (Mg and K) (F and Cl) pick the one with a. The more favorable (exothermic) electron affinity b. The higher ionization energy c. The larger size
Complete and balance the equations for the following reactions. a. Li(s) + N2(g) → b. Rb(s) + S(s) → c. Cs(s) + H2O(l) → d. Na(s) + Cl2(g) →
Cesium was discovered in natural mineral waters in 1860 by R. W. Bunsen and G. R. Kirchhoff, using the spectroscope they invented in 1859. The name comes from the Latin word caesius, meaning “sky blue,” which describes the prominent blue line observed for this element at 455.5 nm. Calculate the
The bright yellow light emitted by a sodium vapor lamp consists of two emission lines at 589.0 nm and 589.6 nm. What are the frequency and the energy of a photon of light at each of these wavelengths? What are the energies in kJ/mol?
Give the name and formula of the binary compound formed by each of the following pairs of elements. a. Li and N b. Na and Br c. K and S d. Li and P e. Rb and H f. Na and H
It takes 208.4 kJ of energy to remove 1 mole of electrons from the atoms on the surface of rubidium metal. If rubidium metal is irradiated with 254-nm light, what is the maximum kinetic energy the released electrons can have?
Elements with very large ionization energies also tend to have highly exothermic electron affinities. Explain. Which group of elements would you expect to be an exception to this statement?
Diagonal relationships in the periodic table exist as well as vertical relationships. For example, Be and Al are similar in some of their properties, as are B and Si. Rationalize why these diagonal relationships hold for properties such as size, ionization energy, and electron affinity.
A certain microwave oven delivers 750 watts (J/s) of power to a coffee cup containing 50.0 g of water at 25.0oC. If the wavelength of microwaves in the oven is 9.75 cm, how long does it take, and how many photons must be absorbed, to make the water boil? The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18
Mars is roughly 60 million km from earth. How long does it take for a radio signal originating from earth to reach Mars?
Photogray lenses incorporate small amounts of silver chloride in the glass of the lens. When light hits the AgCl particles, the following reaction occurs:The silver metal formed causes the lenses to darken. The enthalpy change for this reaction is 3.10 Ã— 102 kJ/ mol. Assuming that all
Consider the following approximate visible light spectrum:Barium emits light in the visible region of the spectrum. If each photon of light emitted from barium has an energy of 3.59 Ã— 10-19 J, what color of visible light is emitted?
One of the visible lines in the hydrogen emission spectrum corresponds to the n = 6 to n = 2 electronic transition. What color light is this transition? See Exercise 127.Exercise 127.Consider the following approximate visible light spectrum:
Consider the representations of the p and d atomic orbitals in Figs. 12.19 and 12.21. What do the 1 and 2 signs indicate?Figure 12.19Figure 12.20
The following graph plots the first, second, and third ionization energies for Mg, Al, and Si. Without referencing the text, which plot corresponds to which element? In one of the plots, there is a huge jump in energy between I2 and I3, unlike in the other two plots. Explain this phenomenon.
Using data from this chapter, calculate the change in energy expected for each of the following processes. a. Na(g) + Cl(g) → Na+(g) + Cl-(g) b. Mg(g) + F(g) → Mg+(g) + F-(g) c. Mg+(g) + F(g) → Mg2+(g) + F-(g) d. Mg(g) + 2F(g) → Mg2+(g) + 2F-(g)
Hydrogen is produced commercially by the reaction of methane with steam: CH4(g) + H2O(g) ⇌ CO(g) + 3H2(g) a. Calculate ΔHo and ΔSo for this reaction (use the data in Appendix 4). b. What temperatures will favor product formation assuming standard conditions and assuming that ΔHo and ΔSo do
How long will it take to produce 1.00 × 103 kg of magnesium metal by the electrolysis of molten magnesium chloride using a current of 5.00 × 104 A?
What ions are found in hard water? What happens when water is “softened”?
Write balanced equations describing the reaction of Sr with each of the following: O2, S8, Cl2, P4, H2, H2O, and HCl.
What mass of barium is produced when molten BaCl2 is electrolyzed by a current of 2.50 × 105 A for 6.00 h?
The United States Public Health Service (USPHS) recom-mends the fluoridation of water as a means for prevent-ing tooth decay. The recommended concentration is 1 mg F2/L. The presence of calcium ions in hard water can precipitate the added fluoride. What is the maximum molarity of calcium ions in
Slaked lime [Ca(OH)2] is used to soften hard water by removing calcium ions from hard water through the reaction Ca(OH)2(aq) + Ca2+(aq) + 2HCO3-(aq) → 2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O(l)
What is the valence electron configuration for the Group 3A elements? How does metallic character change as one goes down this group? How are boron and aluminum different?
What are three-centered bonds?
Write equations describing the reactions of Ga with each of the following: F2, O2, S8, and HCl.
The major industrial use of hydrogen is in the produc-tion of ammonia by the Haber process: 3H2(g) + N2(g) → 2NH3(g) a. Using data from Appendix 4, calculate ΔHo, ΔSo, and ΔGo for the Haber process reaction. b. Is this reaction spontaneous at standard conditions? c. At what temperatures is the
What is the valence electron configuration for Group 4A elements? Group 4A contains two of the most important elements on earth. What are they, and why are they so important? How does metallic character change as one goes down Group 4A?
Discuss the importance of the C–C and Si–Si bond strengths and of p bonding to the properties of carbon and silicon.
The following illustration shows the orbitals used to form the bonds in carbon dioxide.Each color represents a different orbital. Label each or-bital, draw the Lewis structure for carbon dioxide, and explain how the localized electron model describes the bonding in CO2.
In addition to CO2, two additional stable oxides of car-bon form. The space filling models for CO2 and the other two stable oxides are:What are the formulas for the two additional stable oxides of carbon? Explain the bonding in each of these forms using the localized electron model.
From the information on the temperature stability of white and gray tin given in this chapter, which form would you expect to have the more ordered structure (have the smaller positional probability)?
Silicon is produced for the chemical and electronics industries by the following reactions. Give the balanced equation for each reaction. a. SiO2(s) + C(s) → Si(s) + CO(g) b. Silicon tetrachloride is reacted with very pure mag-nesium, producing silicon and magnesium chloride. c. Na2SiF6(s) +
Tin forms compounds in the 12 and 14 oxidation states. Therefore, when tin reacts with fluorine, two products are possible. Write balanced equations for the production of the two tin halide compounds and name them.
Write equations describing the reactions of Sn with each of the following: Cl2, O2, and HCl.
The compound Pb3O4 (red lead) contains a mixture of lead(II) and lead(IV) oxidation states. What is the mole ratio of lead(II) to lead(IV) in Pb3O4?
The resistivity (a measure of electrical resistance) of graphite is (0.4 to 5.0) × 10-4 ohm . cm in the basal plane. (The basal plane is the plane of the six- membered rings of carbon atoms.) The resistivity is 0.2 to 1.0 ohm . cm along the axis perpendicular to the plane. The resistivity of
Label the following hydrides as ionic, covalent, or interstitial, and support your answer. The light blue atoms are hydrogen atoms.
The oxyanion of nitrogen in which it has the highest oxi-dation state is the nitrate ion (NO3-). The corresponding oxyanion of phosphorus is PO43-. The NO43- ion is known but is not very stable. The PO3- ion is not known. Account for these differences in terms of the bonding in the four anions.
Using data from Appendix 4, calculate ΔHo, ΔSo, and ΔGo for the reaction Ns(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g) Why does the NO formed in an automobile engine not readily decompose back to N2 and O2 in the atmosphere?
Table 18.14 lists some common nitrogen compounds having oxidation states ranging from 23 to 15. Rationalize this spread in oxidation states.Table 18.14
What is nitrogen fixation? Give some examples of nitrogen fixation.
Elemental nitrogen exists as N2, whereas in the gas phase the elements phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony consist of P4, As4, and Sb4 molecules, respectively. Give a possible reason for this difference between N2 and the other Group 5A elements.
Lewis structures can be used to understand why some molecules react in certain ways. Write the Lewis struc-ture for the reactants and products in the following reactions. a. Nitrogen dioxide dimerizes to produce dinitrogen tetroxide. b. Boron trifluoride accepts a pair of electrons from ammonia,
Use bond energies (Table 13.6) to show that the pre-ferred products for the decomposition of N2O3 are NO2 and NO rather than O2 and N2O. (The N€“O single-bond energy is 201 kJ/ mol.) (Hint: Consider the reaction kinetics.)Table 13.6
Ammonia is produced by the Haber process, in which nitrogen and hydrogen are reacted directly using an iron mesh impregnated with oxides as a catalyst. For the reaction N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) equilibrium constants (Kp values) as a function of temperature are 300oC, 4.34 × 10-3 500oC, 1.45 ×
The synthesis of ammonia gas from nitrogen gas and hy-drogen gas represents a classic case in which a knowl-edge of kinetics and equilibrium was used to make a desired chemical reaction economically feasible. Explain how each of the following conditions helps to maximize the yield of ammonia. a.
Write an equation for the reaction of hydrazine with fluorine gas to produce nitrogen gas and hydrogen fluoride gas. Estimate Î”H for this reaction, using bond energies from Table 13.6.Table 13.6
What is the valence electron configuration for the alkali metals? List some common properties of alkali metals. How are the pure metals prepared?
In each of the following pairs of substances, one is stable and known, whereas the other is unstable. For each pair, choose the stable substance, and explain why the other compound is unstable. a. NF5 or PF5 b. AsF5 or AsI5 c. NF3 or NBr3
Write balanced equations for the reactions described in Table 18.13 for the production of Bi and Sb.Table 18.13
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is a triprotic acid, phosphorous acid (H3PO3) is a diprotic acid, and hypophosphorous acid (H3PO2) is a monoprotic acid. Explain this phenomenon.
Trisodium phosphate (TSP) is an effective grease remover. Like many cleaners, TSP acts as a base in water. Write a balanced equation to account for this basic behavior.
White phosphorus is much more reactive than black or red phosphorus. Explain.
Arsenic reacts with oxygen to form oxides analogous to the phosphorus oxides. These arsenic oxides react with water similarly to the phosphorus oxides. Write balanced chemical equations describing the reaction of arse-nic with oxygen and the reaction of the oxides with water.
Compare the description of the localized electron model (Lewis structure) with that of the molecular orbital model for the bonding in NO, NO+, and NO-. Account for any discrepancies between the two models.
Many oxides of nitrogen have positive values for the standard free energy of formation. Using NO as an example, explain why this is the case.
Draw Lewis structures for the AsCl4+ and AsCl6- ions. What type of reaction (acid–base, oxidation–reduction, or the like) is the following? 2AsCl5(g) → AsCl4AsCl6(s)
Nitric acid is produced commercially by the Ostwald process, represented by the following equations: 4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g) 2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g) 3NO2(g) + H2O(l) → 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g) What mass of NH3 must be used to produce 1.0 × 106 kg HNO3 by the Ostwald process? Assume
What will be the atomic number of the next alkali metal to be discovered? How would you expect the physical properties of the next alkali metal to compare with the properties of the other alkali metals summarized in TableTable
The space shuttle orbiter utilizes the oxidation of methyl-hydrazine by dinitrogen tetroxide for propulsion: 4N2H3CH3(l) + 5N2O4(l) → 12H2O(g) + 9N2(g) + 4CO2(g) Calculate ΔHo for this reaction using data in Appendix 4.
What is the valence electron configuration of Group 6A elements? What are some property differences between oxygen and polonium?
What are the Lewis structures for the two allotropic forms of oxygen? How can the paramagnetism of O2 be explained using the molecular orbital model? What are the molecular structure and the bond angles in ozone?
Use bond energies to estimate the maximum wavelength of light that will cause the reaction
Ozone is desirable in the upper atmosphere but undesir-able in the lower atmosphere. A dictionary states that ozone has the scent of a spring thunderstorm. How can these seemingly conflicting statements be reconciled in terms of the chemical properties of ozone?
Ozone is a possible replacement for chlorine in municipal water purification. Unlike chlorine, virtually no ozone remains after treatment. This has good and bad consequences. Explain.
Sulfur forms a wide variety of compounds in which it has 16, 14, 12, 0, and 22 oxidation states. Give examples of sulfur compounds having each of these oxida-tion states.
In large doses, selenium is toxic. However, in moderate intake, selenium is a physiologically important element. How is selenium physiologically important?
Write a balanced equation describing the reduction of H2SeO4 by SO2 to produce selenium.
What is the valence electron configuration of the halogens? Why do the boiling points and melting points of the halogens increase steadily from F2 to I2?

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