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logic functions and equations
A Concise Introduction To Logic 11th Edition Patrick J. Hurley - Solutions
Answer “true” or “false” to the following statements:1. From the standpoint of logic, many definitions are concerned not with words but with things.2. The definiendum is the word or term that is supposed to be defined.3. The definiens is the word or group of words that assigns a meaning to
The following exercises involve constructing definitions:1. Invent stipulative definitions for two new words that you wish to introduce into the language for the first time.2. Construct lexical definitions for “capital” and “depression,” and indicate two different meanings for each.3.
Determine whether the following definitions are stipulative, lexical, precising, theoretical, or persuasive.★1. “Blind” means, for federal income-tax purposes, either the inability to see better than 20/200 in the better eye with glasses or having a field of vision of 20 degrees or less.2.
Answer “true” or “false” to the following statements:1. All words have an intensional meaning and an extensional meaning.2. The intensional meaning of a term consists of the attributes connoted by the term.3. The extensional meaning of a term consists of the members of the class denoted by
The following exercises deal with words and terms.1. Determine which of the following words or groups of words are terms and which are nonterms.extortion Thomas Jefferson laborious Empire State Building cunningly annoy practitioner render satisfactory seriousness graceful dancer forever wake up
Determine whether the following disputes are verbal, factual, or some combination of the two. If verbal, discuss whether the dispute arises from vagueness or ambiguity.★1. FRANK: Look at that huge tree that fell last night. It must have made a tremendous crash when it came down.SHIRLEY: No, I’m
Visit a drug store and find the aisle that displays hair-care products (shampoos, conditioners, etc.). Identify five items whose names have emotional meaning.Then, for each one, explain how its name is supposed to elicit a favorable response from the consumer.
The following selections were taken from the letters-to-the-editor section of a newspaper. Each can be interpreted as expressing one or more arguments. Begin by identifying the conclusion of each. Then disengage the covert assumptions, value claims, and other cognitive assertions from the emotive
The following selection is taken from a speech delivered by George C. Wallace, former governor of Alabama, on July 4, 1964. In this speech Wallace attacked Lyndon Johnson’s signing of the Civil Rights Act. The speech is liberally sprinkled with emotive terminology. Make a list of what you
The following arguments gradually increase in difficulty. Use the method presented in this section to construct argument patterns. If a statement is redundant or plays no role in the argument, do not include it in the pattern.★1. 1 Many people believe that the crime of bribery cannot extend to
The following arguments were abstracted from newspaper articles, editorials, and letters to the editor. Use the method presented in this section to construct argument patterns. If a statement is redundant or plays no role in the argument, do not include it in the pattern.★1. 1 The conditions
Use the counterexample method to prove each of the following arguments invalid.★1. If animal species are fixed and immutable, then evolution is a myth. Therefore, evolution is not a myth, since animal species are not fixed and immutable.2. If carbon dioxide is present in the atmosphere, then
Use the counterexample method to prove the following categorical syllogisms invalid.In doing so, follow the suggestions given in the text.★1. All galaxies are structures that contain black holes in the center, so all galaxies are quasars, since all quasars are structures that contain black holes
Answer “true” or “false” to the following statements:1. Some arguments, while not completely valid, are almost valid.2. Inductive arguments allow for varying degrees of strength and weakness.3. Invalid deductive arguments are basically the same as inductive arguments.4. If a deductive
Determine whether the following arguments are inductive or deductive. If an argument is inductive, determine whether it is strong or weak. If it is deductive, determine whether it is valid or invalid.★1. Since Tom is the brother of Agatha, and Agatha is the mother of Raquel, it follows that Tom
The following arguments are inductive. Determine whether each is strong or weak, and note the relationship between your answer and the truth or falsity of the premise(s)and conclusion. Then determine whether each argument is cogent or uncogent.★1. The grave marker at Arlington National Cemetery
The following arguments are deductive. Determine whether each is valid or invalid, and note the relationship between your answer and the truth or falsity of the premises and conclusion. Finally, determine whether the argument is sound or unsound.★1. Since Moby Dick was written by Shakespeare, and
Answer “true” or “false” to the following statements:1. In an inductive argument, it is intended that the conclusion contain more information than the premises.2. In a deductive argument, the conclusion is not supposed to contain more information than the premises.3. The form of
Determine whether the following arguments are best interpreted as being inductive or deductive. Also state the criteria you use in reaching your decision (i.e., the presence of indicator words, the nature of the inferential link between premises and conclusion, or the character or form of
Fill in the blanks with “necessary” or “sufficient” to make the following statements true. After the blanks have been filled in, express the result in terms of conditional statements. *1. Being a tiger is a 2. Being an animal is a 3. Drinking a glass of water is a thirst. *4. Having a
Answer “true” or “false” to the following statements:1. Any passage that contains an argument must contain a claim that something is supported by evidence or reasons.2. In an argument, the claim that something is supported by evidence or reasons is always explicit.3. Passages that contain
The following statements represent conclusions for arguments. Each is expressed in the form of two alternatives. Select one of the alternatives for each conclusion, and then jot down several reasons that support it. Finally, incorporate your reasons into a written argument of at least 100 words
The following selections were originally submitted as letters to the editor of newspapers and magazines. Determine which of them can, with good reason, be considered arguments. In those that can, identify the conclusion.★1. What this country needs is a return to the concept of swift and certain
Determine which of the following passages are arguments. For those that are, identify the conclusion. For those that are not, determine the kind of nonargument.★1. The turkey vulture is called by that name because its red featherless head resembles the head of a wild turkey.2. If public education
Answer “true” or “false” to the following statements:1. The purpose of the premise or premises is to set forth the reasons or evidence given in support of the conclusion.2. Some arguments have more than one conclusion.3. All arguments must have more than one premise.4. The words
The following arguments were taken from magazine and newspaper editorials and letters to the editor. In most instances the main conclusion must be rephrased to capture the full intent of the author. Write out what you interpret the main conclusion to be.★1. University administrators know well the
Each of the following passages contains a single argument. Using the letters “P”and “C,” identify the premises and conclusion of each argument, writing premises first and conclusion last. List the premises in the order in which they make the most sense (usually the order in which they
Th e medical licensing board of this state maintains that only medical schools that are accredited by the board should be permitted to train doctors. Th e primary reason given for this policy is that doctors who are trained at nonaccredited institutions may lack the training necessary to become
In a recent medical experiment, 20 volunteers who were not immune to yellow fever lived for an extended period in a mosquito-proof environment with patients who had advanced cases of yellow fever. During this period, the volunteers were in constant contact with these patients, yet none of the
Whenever inflation increases, the stock market declines; and whenever interest rates decrease, the stock market advances. However, since interest rates have not decreased nor has infl ation increased, the stock market will neither decline nor advance.Which one of the following arguments contains a
15. Lying is morally justified only if it is done to save a person’s life. Yet, most people lie not because a life is in danger, but only to avoid the unpleasant consequences of telling the truth. Th us, most lies that are told are morally unjustifi ed.In which of the following is the pattern of
14. Price and wage controls are the only way to control infl ation. But wage controls limit worker spending, which, in turn, results in reduced corporate profi ts if price controls are in place.Assume the above statements are true. Which of the following statements also must be true if corporate
In a game of Monopoly, if a player owns a hotel on Boardwalk, he must own both Boardwalk and Park Place. If he owns a hotel in Marvin Gardens, he must own Marvin Gardens and either Boardwalk or Park Place. If he owns Park Place, he also owns Marvin Gardens.If the player described above does not own
12. According to modern science, everything in the universe is composed of atoms that are exceedingly small; so small, in fact, that they cannot be seen even with the most powerful microscopes because they do not provide suffi cient stimulus for the optic nerve, even when magnifi ed. But if it is
It is the sacrosanct duty of the press to publish any news that is in the public interest to have published.There can be no doubt that the public has demonstrated considerable interest in the Adamson murder case, especially since the details of the private lives of the people involved have been
10. Recent reports from waste management companies indicate that disposable plastic containers make up an increasingly large percentage of the waste they collect. As a result, landfills and incineration sites now deal almost exclusively with the disposal of plastics, whereas glass and metal
9. Residential water use has been severely restricted in response to the current drought in our state.However, current reservoir levels are at the same height as during the drought that occurred here eight years ago. Because residential water use was not restricted then, it should not be restricted
8. Scientists have found through experimentation that baby female gorillas who were “nurtured” by inanimate mother substitutes that performed some parenting functions were unable to function as mothers when they had offspring. This teaches us that infants should not be placed in the care of
Parents cannot be with their teenage children every minute of the day and, even if they could, they would not always be able to stop them from doing things that might cause harm to other people or other people’s property. Th at’s why they should not be blamed or punished for crimes that their
6. Unequal pay for men and women is a completely indefensible practice and one that must be stopped immediately. Aft er all, can anyone seriously doubt that women have as much right to self-esteem as men?Surely this fact alone is reason enough to justify their right to earn as much money as
5. In order to ensure a successful vote on the issue of abortion rights, the governor is pressuring the leaders of the state political party to replace several delegates to the national convention. Th e governor is insisting that certain individuals with a history of voting in favor of abortion
4. Captive animals are more interesting research subjects than are wild animals. Th at’s why researchers can learn more from studying captive animals than from studying wild animals.Which of the following is an assumption upon which the above argument depends?(A) Researchers study only subjects
The average annual salary for executives at World-Wide Travel last year was $55,000, while the average salary for travel consultants was $47,000. The average annual salary for all employees was $38,000.If the above information is correct, which one of the following conclusions can be properly
A recipe for cooking potatoes states that potatoes should be cooked in boiling water for 20 minutes to be properly prepared. Th is holds only for potatoes that have been diced into one-inch cubes—smaller cubes would require proportionately less cooking time and larger ones proportionately more.
Historians universally agree that all democracies in the past have eventually perished as a result of disputes between competing groups of special interests, coupled with gross ineffi ciency, waste and corruption in government, and a decline in the moral values of the society at large. Every day
7. Design or perform the following experiments, as directed.Design an experiment to test the claims of astrology. You might begin by selecting ten “clients”; obtain the exact time and location of their births and have an astrologer do a reading for each. Th en see if the clients can recognize
6. Design or perform the following experiments, as directed.Design an experiment to test whether people are prone to believing fantastical explanations of things they do not understand (including conjurors’ tricks.)Consider repeating the experiment (described in the text) that Singer and Benassi
5. Design or perform the following experiments, as directed.Set up an experiment to test for the autokinetic eff ect. Th e experiment might involve a small point of light in a large, dark room, or a fl ashlight some distance away on a dark night. Select a small group of observers for this
4. Design or perform the following experiments, as directed.Try your hand at cold reading. Have an assistant select some “clients” who are willing to come in for a reading. Th ey should be told in advance that you have genuine abilities in this area. In preparation read Ray Hayman’s article
3. Design or perform the following experiments, as directed.Dowsing involves the use of a forked tree branch (“dowsing rod”) to find underground water. Sometimes a pair of metal rods are used, and sometimes oil, minerals, and metal objects are claimed to have been found. When the dowser feels
2. Design or perform the following experiments, as directed.Iridology is a diagnostic procedure that depends on the hypothesis that each organ of the body is represented by a specifi c part of the iris. By examining the eyes of a patient, the iridologist is supposed to be able to detect
1. Design or perform the following experiments, as directed.Psychic phenomena include psychokinesis, telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition(see Exercise I, 7). Design an experiment to test for the existence of one or more forms of these phenomena. Th e experiment might use Zener cards, dice,
Aft er researching one of the following topics, write an essay of eight to ten pages evaluating the plausibility of the underlying hypothesis.1. Th e existence of UFOs 2. Extraterrestrial abductions 3. Scientifi c creationism 4. Darwin’s theory of natural selection 5. Biorhythms 6. Phrenology 7.
On June 24 and 26, 1981, six children in the little village of Medjugorje in Bosnia (former Yugoslavia) claimed to have had a vision of the Virgin Mary.In the days and weeks that followed, more alleged visions occurred, and reports began to attract visitors anxious for a vision of their own. From
In 1955, the psychologist N. D. Sundburg gave the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, a commonly used personality test, to forty-four students.Next he had two highly experienced psychologists draw up personality sketches for each student based on the results of the test. He then presented
Th e fi rst step in providing an astrological reading is to cast the chart. Th is is followed by an analysis of interacting chart factors, which in turn is followed by the astrologer’s interpretation of these factors. In regard to the third step, D. Hamblin, former chairman of the United Kingdom
On the basis of a person’s natal chart (horoscope cast according to the person’s date, time, and place of birth), astrologers claim to be able to analyze that person’s character and personality and make predictions about his or her life course. To test the claims of astrology about character
In 1970, the physicist David Simpson and his colleague Norman Foxwell performed an experiment involving a group of UFO buffs in England. On a Saturday evening about thirty of these individuals had gathered on a remote hilltop where they thought there was a good chance of sighting a UFO. Simpson
In 1975 James Randi off ered $10,000 (later increased to $1,000,000) to any person who could perform a paranormal feat (including any demonstration of psychic power) in his presence under controlled conditions. (Th is off er was still open as of the printing of this book.) Since that time, hundreds
Psychic phenomena include psychokinesis, telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.Psychokinesis is the ability to move objects through the direct power of the mind, telepathy is the power to perceive the thoughts of others without the use of the senses, clairvoyance is the ability to perceive
Suppose you are a fortune-teller. You have a small shop in Milwaukee complete with a crystal ball, beads hanging in the doorway, incense, and a shelf of books devoted to the dark arts. At about 4:00 in the aft ernoon in early March a couple in their mid-thirties come into your shop. Th ey are
Th e modern creationist theory, called “scientifi c creationism,” propounded by Duane Gish and Henry Morris, accounts for geologic formations and fossils by appealing to the great fl ood of Noah. Th is fl ood allegedly killed numerous mammals, birds, fi sh, and insects, and their carcasses
4. One of the early creationist theories advanced in opposition to Darwin’s theory of natural selection was put forward by the nineteenth-century naturalist Philip Gosse. According to this theory, God created the world in about 4000 b.c., and he did so in exactly six days, per the account in
Discuss the following reports from residents of Hong Kong (taken from“Hong Kong’s Feng Shui: Popular Magic in a Modern Urban Setting,” by Charles F. Emmons, Journal of Popular Culture, Summer 1992).a. I have a little restaurant in Aberdeen, a seafood place facing the sea. I used to be on the
Discuss the meaning of the following selections.a. Th e universe is a macrocosm of creative energy and power, and every man, woman, and child is the epitome of this totality of the cosmos. Within your individualized energy fi eld, the microcosm called you, are twenty-two Causal Powers, or angels,
1. Discuss the evidentiary problems raised by the following questions.a. Aft er drinking tea made from tarragon leaves every day for a year, your grandfather reports that his bunions cleared up. Does this prove that tarragon tea has the power to cure bunions?b. You go to a psychotherapist who
20. If a hypothesis gives rise to contradictory implications, it is incoherent. True or False.
★19. Th e theoretical interpretations of light, electricity, and magnetism during the fi rst part of the nineteenth century illustrate a condition of inadequacy. True or False.
18. If a theory is incoherent, it is defi cient in rationality. True or False.
17. A hypothesis is fruitful to the extent that it suggests new ideas for future analysis and confi rmation. True or False.
★16. If a hypothesis is not externally consistent, then it must be discarded. True or False.
15. Th e coherence of a hypothesis has to do with how well the hypothesis fi ts the facts. True or False.
14. Th e adequacy of a hypothesis has to do with how well the ideas or terms in the hypothesis are rationally interconnected. True or False.
★13. Th e problem with the distinction between empirical and theoretical hypotheses is that observation is dependent on theory. True or False.
12. Th eoretical hypotheses concern how something should be conceptualized. True or False.
11. Torricelli’s and Pasteur’s hypotheses may be classifi ed as theoretical hypotheses. True or False.
★10. Th e hypotheses relating to the discoveries of radium and Neptune may be classifi ed as empirical hypotheses. True or False.
9. In Pasteur’s day, the theory of spontaneous generation held that life was produced by the direct action of oxygen on organic nutrients. True or False.
8. Torricelli’s hypothesis was consistent with the hypothesis that nature abhors a vacuum. True or False.
★7. In the Neptune episode, Adams and Leverrier deserve the credit for working out the implications of the hypothesis. True or False.
6. In the episode pertaining to the discovery of radium, all of the hypotheses turned out to be true. True or False.
5. If an implication of a hypothesis is false, then we may conclude that the hypothesis is false, at least in part. True or False.
★4. If the implications of a hypothesis are true, then we may conclude that the hypothesis is true. True or False.
3. Hypotheses serve the purpose of directing the search for additional evidence. True or False.
2. Hypotheses are derived directly from the evidence. True or False.
1. Hypothetical reasoning is useful when the evidence by itself does not provide the solution to the problem. True or False.
Write a short paper (3–5 pages) on one of the following scientifi c events. Discuss the problem, one or more hypotheses that were formulated, the implications that were drawn, and the test procedures that were used. Th en evaluate the hypothesis in terms of adequacy, internal coherence, external
10. A short time before fi nal exams you lose your class notes. You recall having seen them four days ago. Use your own personal activities and movements during the past four days as the basis for formulating your hypotheses as to the whereabouts of the notes. For each of the following situations,
9. You are a manager of a department store, and, although business has beenbrisk lately, your chief accountant informs you that the store is losing money. For each of the following situations, invent at least three hypotheses aimed at explaining what went wrong or at solving the problem. Th en, for
8. You are a philosophy professor at a university, and while reading a set of term papers you discover that two of them are identical. Th ose two papers are also extremely well written. For each of the following situations, invent at least three hypotheses aimed at explaining what went wrong or at
7. On a rainy evening you return to your ground-fl oor apartment and discover that you have been burglarized. You can’t believe it, because you are certain you locked the door when you went out. You share the apartment with a roommate. For each of the following situations, invent at least three
6. A close friend calls you on the phone and confi des a personal secret. Th at night you write the secret in your diary. A few days later your friend is furious with you because the friend overheard someone on campus talking about the secret. For each of the following situations, invent at least
5. Aft er driving for miles on a dusty road, you park your car near the bank of a river and take a hike through the woods. Soon you become lost. In one direction you see a small stream, and in the other, a trail. For each of the following situations, invent at least three hypotheses aimed at
4. On a windy day you pick up the phone to call a friend, but you fi nd that the line is dead. You live in a house and share phone expenses with a housemate. For each of the following situations, invent at least three hypotheses aimed at explaining what went wrong or at solving the problem. Th en,
3. Aft er mailing your paycheck to the bank, you write a check to pay your rent.Th e rent check bounces. For each of the following situations, invent at least three hypotheses aimed at explaining what went wrong or at solving the problem. Th en, for each hypothesis, describe one or more experiments
2. Aft er settling in a new location you buy some seeds for a fl ower garden. When the fl owers come up, they are stunted and of poor quality. For each of the following situations, invent at least three hypotheses aimed at explaining what went wrong or at solving the problem. Th en, for each
1. Someone you have been dating has a birthday coming up, so you call a fl orist and order fl owers for the occasion. Two days later the person is cold and distant. For each of the following situations, invent at least three hypotheses aimed at explaining what went wrong or at solving the problem.
20. Expressing profi ts as a percentage of sales volume presents an honest picture of the earnings of a corporation. True or False.
★19. If a certain quantity is increased by 10 percent and later decreased by 10 percent, the quantity is restored to what it was originally. True or False.
18. Data reflecting a 100 percent increase in housing construction could be accurately represented by a pictogram of two houses, one twice as high as the other. True or False.
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