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Cognitive Psychology Connecting Mind Research And Everyday Experience 3rd Edition E. Bruce Goldstein - Solutions
Compare and contrast the various approaches to creativity.
Design a problem that would require insight for its solution.
Design a context for problem solving that would enhance the ease of reaching a solution.
Given what we know about some of the hindrances to problem solving, how could you minimize those hindrances in your handling of the problems you face?
Given some of the ideas regarding creativity presented in this chapter, what can you do to enhance your own creativity?
What are some of the major hypotheses regarding how knowledge is represented in the mind?
What are some of the characteristics of mental imagery?
How does knowledge representation benefit from both images and propositions?
How may conceptual knowledge and expectancies influence the way we use images?
What Is a Proposition?
Do Propositional Theory and Imagery Hold Up to Their Promises?
In what forms can knowledge be represented in our mind?
What kinds of codes does dual-code theory comprise?
What is mental rotation?
What is some of the neuropsychological evidence for mental rotation?
What is image scaling?
How do we mentally scan images?
What is representational neglect?
Do Experimenters’ Expectations Influence Experiment Outcomes?
Why are demand characteristics important when researchers design and interpret experiments?
What kind of mental model did Johnson-Laird propose?
What is the difference between visual and spatial imagery?
What is a cognitive map?
Name some heuristics that people use when manipulating cognitive maps.
What is a text map?
Describe some of the characteristics of pictures versus words as external forms of knowledge representation.
What factors might lead a person’s mental model to be inaccurate with respect to how radio transmissions lead people to be able to hear music on a radio?
In what ways is mental imagery analogous (or functionally equivalent) to perception?
In what ways do propositional forms of knowledge representation influence performance on tasks involving mental imagery?
What are some strengths and weaknesses of ERP studies?
Some people report never experiencing mental imagery, yet they are able to solve mentalrotation problems. How might they solve such problems?
How can we perceive an object like a chair as having a stable form, given that the image of the chair on our retina changes as we look at it from different directions?
What are two fundamental approaches to explaining perception?
What happens when people with normal visual sensations cannot perceive visual stimuli?
What is the difference between sensation and perception?
What is the difference between the distal and the perceptual object?
How are rods and cones both similar to and different from each other?
What are some of the major parts of the eye and what are their functions?
What is the “what/where” hypothesis?
How Do Bottom-Up Theories and Top-Down Theories Go Together?
What are the major Gestalt principles?
What is the “recognition by components” theory?
What is the difference between top-down and bottom-up theories of perception?
What is the difference between viewer-centered and object-centered perception?
What is prosopagnosia?
What is shape constancy?
What are the main cues for depth perception?
What is visual agnosia?
To what does “modularity” refer?
What is the difference between monochromacy and dichromacy?
Briefly describe each of the monocular and binocular depth cues listed in this chapter.
Describe bottom-up and top-down approaches to perception.
How might deficits of perception, such as agnosia, offer insight into normal perceptual processes?
Compare and contrast the Gestalt approach to form perception and the theory of direct perception.
Design a demonstration that would illustrate the phenomenon of perceptual constancy.
Design an experiment to test the featurematching theory.
To what extent does perception involve learning? Why?
What kinds of errors do people make in reasoning? (362)
What kinds of reasoning “traps” do people get into when making decisions? (375)
How do emotions influence decisions by contestants on shows like Deal or No Deal? (377)
How does the fact that people sometimes feel a need to justify their decisions affect the process by which they make those decisions? (381)
What is deductive reasoning? What does it mean to say that the conclusion to a syllogism is “valid”? How can a conclusion be valid but not true? True but not valid? L01
What is a categorical syllogism? What is the difference between validity and truth in categorical syllogisms? L01
What is a conditional syllogism? Which of the four types of syllogisms described in the chapter are valid, which are not valid, and how well can people judge the validity of each type? L01
What is the Wason four-card problem? Describe the falsifi cation principle. What do the results of experiments that have used abstract and concrete versions of the problem indicate about the roles of (a) concreteness; (b) knowledge of regulations; and (c) permission schemas in solving this problem?
How has the evolutionary approach to cognition been applied to the Wason four-card problem? What can we conclude from all of the experiments on the Wason problem? L01
What is inductive reasoning, and how is it different from deductive reasoning? L01
How is inductive reasoning involved in everyday experience? L01
How do the following cause errors in reasoning: availability heuristic; illusory correlations; representativeness heuristic; confi rmation bias? L01
How can failure to take into account base rates and small sample sizes cause errors in reasoning? L01
What is the confi rmation bias? Describe Wason’s experiment on sequences of numbers and Lord’s experiment on attitudes about capital punishment. L01
What is the utility approach to decisions? What are some examples of situations in which people do not behave to maximize the outcome, as the utility approach proposes? L01
Distinguish between expected emotions, integral immediate emotions, and incidental immediate emotions. L01
What is the connection between risk aversion and people’s ability to predict their emotions? Describe the Kermer experiment in which participants rated their expected happiness before gambling and their actual happiness after the results were known. L01
What is some evidence that incidental emotions affect decisions? Consider the relationship between the weather and university admissions, and Lerner’s experiment on the relationship between mood and setting buying and selling prices. L01
How do the way choices are presented and the need to justify decisions affect the decisions people make? L01
How is the prefrontal cortex involved in problem solving and reasoning? L01
What is neuroeconomics? Describe Sanfey and coworkers’ (2003) experiment, and indicate what it adds to our understanding of decision making. L01
How are people’s decisions about treatment options infl uenced by the person or group for whom they are making the decision? L01
Reasoning is a cognitive process in which people start with information and come to conclusions that go beyond that information. Deductive reasoning involves syllogisms and can result in definite conclusions.Inductive reasoning is based on evidence and results in conclusions that are probably true.
Categorical syllogisms have two premises and a conclusion that describe the relation between two categories by using statements that begin with all, no, or some. L01
A syllogism is valid if its conclusion follows logically from its premises. The validity of a syllogism is determined by its form. This is different from truth, which is determined by the content of the statements in the syllogism and has to do with how statements correspond to known facts. L01
Conditional syllogisms have two premises and a conclusion, like categorical syllogisms, but the first premise has the form “If . . . then. . ..” The four basic types of conditional syllogism are (a) affirming the antecedent and(b) denying the consequent (both valid); (c) affirming the
The Wason four-card problem has been used to study how people think when evaluating conditional syllogisms. People make errors in the abstract version, but perform better when the problem is stated in real-world terms, as in the “drinking age” version. The key to solving the problem is to apply
Based on experiments using different versions of the Wason problem, a number of mechanisms have been proposed to explain people’s performance. These mechanisms include using permission schemas, and the evolutionary approach, which explains performance in terms of social exchange theory. Many
In inductive reasoning, conclusions follow not from logically constructed syllogisms, but from evidence.Conclusions are suggested with varying degrees of certainty. The strength of an inductive argument depends on the representativeness, number, and quality of observations on which the argument is
Inductive reasoning plays a major role in everyday life because we often make predictions about what we think will happen based on our observations about what has happened in the past. L01
The availability heuristic states that events that are more easily remembered are judged as being more probable than events that are less easily remembered. This heuristic can sometimes lead to correct judgments, and sometimes not. Errors due to the availability heuristic have been demonstrated by
Illusory correlations and stereotypes, which can lead to incorrect conclusions about relationships between things, are related to the availability heuristic, because they draw attention to specific relationships and therefore make them more “available.” L01
The representativeness heuristic is based on the idea that people often make judgments based on how much one event resembles another event. Errors due to this heuristic have been demonstrated by asking participants to judge a person’s occupation based on descriptive information. Errors occur when
The confirmation bias is the tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to a hypothesis and to overlook information that argues against it. Operation of this bias was demonstrated by Wason’s number sequence task. This bias also operates in real life when people’s attitudes
The utility approach to decision making is based on the idea that people are basically rational, so when they have all of the relevant information, they will make a decision that results in outcomes that are in their best interest.Evidence that people do not always act in accordance with this
Emotions can affect decisions. Expected emotions are emotions a person predicts will happen in response to the outcome of a decision. Integral emotions are associated with the act of making a decision. Incidental emotions are unrelated to the decision, but may affect the decision nonetheless. L01
There is evidence that people are not always accurate in predicting their emotions. This can lead to risk aversion.An experiment by Kermer demonstrates the difference between predicted emotions and the actual emotions experienced after making a decision. L01
There is a large amount of evidence that incidental emotions can affect decisions. Examples include the relationship between the weather and college admissions, and Lerner’s experiment showing a relationship between emotions like sadness and anger and decisions regarding how to set buying and
Decisions can depend on how choices are presented, or framed. Evidence includes the differences in behavior for opt-in vs. opt-out procedures, the results of Slovic’s experiment involving decisions about a mental patient, and people’s response to the Tversky and Kahneman lethal disease problem.
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is one of the major areas of the brain involved in thinking. Damage to the PFC can cause perseveration and poor planning ability, resulting in poor performance on everyday tasks, problems such as the Tower of Hanoi and water-jug problems, and other problems that involve
Neuroeconomics studies decision making by combining approaches from psychology, neuroscience, and economics. The results of a neuroeconomics experiment using the ultimatum game have shown that people’s emotions can interfere with their ability to make rational decisions.Brain imaging indicates
An experiment that involved asking people to make a risky decision about being vaccinated against a deadly disease has shown that people are more likely to recommend that others receive the vaccination than they are to choose to receive the vaccination themselves. This result has implications for
Astrology is popular with many people because they perceive a close connection between astrological predictions and events in their lives. Explain factors that might lead to this perception, even if a close connection does not, in fact, exist. L01
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