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Cognitive Psychology Connecting Mind Research And Everyday Experience 3rd Edition E. Bruce Goldstein - Solutions
Some of the neuropsychological results demonstrate parallels between imagery and perception, and some results do not. How has Behrmann explained these contradictory results? lo1
What are some differences between imagery and perception? What have most psychologists concluded about the connection between imagery and perception? lo1
Under what conditions does imagery improve memory? Describe techniques that use imagery as a tool to improve memory. What is the basic principle that underlies these techniques? lo1
What is the evidence that solving mechanical problems can involve mental simulation? How is this evidence related to visual imagery? lo1
Mental imagery is experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input. Visual imagery is“seeing” in the absence of a visual stimulus. Imagery has played an important role in the creative process and as a way of thinking, in addition to purely verbal techniques. lo1
Early ideas about imagery included the imageless thought debate and Galton’s work with visual images, but imagery research stopped during the behaviorist era. Imagery research began again in the 1960s, with the advent of the cognitive revolution. lo1
Kosslyn’s mental scanning experiments suggested that imagery shares the same mechanisms as perception(that is, creates a depictive representation in the person’s mind), but these results and others were challenged by Pylyshyn, who stated that imagery is based on a mechanism related to language
One of Pylyshyn’s arguments against the idea of a depictive representation is the tacit knowledge explanation, which states that when asked to imagine something, people ask themselves what it would look like to see it and then simulate this staged event. lo1
Finke and Pinker’s “flashed dot” experiment argued against the tacit knowledge explanation. The following experiments also demonstrated parallels between imagery and perception: (a) size in the visual field (visual walk task); (b) interaction between perception and imagery(Perky’s 1910
Parallels between perception and imagery have been demonstrated physiologically by the following methods: (a)recording from single neurons (imagery neurons); (b)brain imaging (demonstrating overlapping activation in the brain); (c) transcranial magnetic stimulation experiments (comparing the effect
There is also physiological evidence for differences between imagery and perception. This evidence includes(a) differences in areas of the brain activated and(b) brain damage causing dissociations between perception and imagery. lo1
Most psychologists, taking all of the above evidence into account, have concluded that imagery is closely related to perception and shares some (but not all) mechanisms. lo1
The use of imagery can improve memory in a number of ways: (a) visualizing interacting images; (b) organization using the method of loci; and (c) associating items with nouns using the pegword technique. lo1
Problems involving mechanical reasoning can be solved using either mental simulation or rule-based approaches.Experiments with the water-pouring problem show it is unlikely that tacit knowledge is involved in using imagery to solve this problem. Experiments with the pulley problem indicate that
Look at an object for a minute; then look away, create a mental image of it, and draw a sketch of the object based on your mental image. Then draw a sketch of the same object while you are looking at it. How do the two sketches differ? What kinds of information about the object were you able to
Write a description of an object as you are looking at it. Then compare the written description with the information you can obtain by looking at the object or at a picture of the object. Is it true that “a picture is worth a thousand words”? How does your comparison of written and visual
Try using one of the techniques described at the end of this chapter to create images that represent things you have to do later today or during the coming week. Then, after some time passes (anywhere from an hour to a few days), check to see whether you can retrieve the memories for these images
Describe the connection between the description of the visual process in Figure 10.20 and the result of Ganis’s fMRI experiment shown in Figure 10.15, in which brain activation caused by imagery and by perception was compared. lo1
How is cognitive psychology relevant to everyday experience? (4)
Are there practical applications of cognitive psychology? (4)
How is it possible to study the inner workings of the mind, when we can’t really see the mind directly?(7)
What is the connection between computers and the study of the mind? LO1
Why could we say that Donders and Ebbinghaus were cognitive psychologists, even though in the 19th century there was no fi eld called cognitive psychology?Describe Donders’ experiment and the rationale behind it, and Ebbinghaus’s memory experiments. What do Donders’ and Ebbinghaus’s
When was the fi rst laboratory of scientifi c psychology founded? How important was the study of mental functioning in psychology at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th? LO1
Describe the rise of behaviorism, especially the infl uence of Watson and Skinner. How did behaviorism affect research on the mind? LO1
Describe the events that helped lead to the decline in importance of behaviorism in psychology and the events that led to the “cognitive revolution.” Be sure you understand what the information-processing approach is. LO1
Describe the behavioral and physiological approaches to the study of cognition. How are they different, and what do they have in common? Give some examples of how both approaches have been used to study the phenomenon of memory consolidation. LO1
Why are models important in cognitive psychology? Do the boxes in models like Broadbent’s model of memory correspond to structures in the brain? LO1
What are two suggestions for improving your ability to learn from this book? LO1
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of the mind. LO1
The mind creates and controls mental capacities such as perception, attention, and memory, and creates representations of the world that enable us to function. LO1
The work of Donders (simple vs. choice reaction time)and Ebbinghaus (the forgetting curve for nonsense syllables) are examples of early experimental research on the mind. LO1
Because the operation of the mind cannot be observed directly, its operation must be inferred from what we can measure, such as behavior or physiological responding. This is one of the basic principles of cognitive psychology. LO1
The first laboratory of scientific psychology, founded by Wundt in 1879, was concerned largely with studying the mind. Structuralism was the dominant theoretical approach of this laboratory, and analytic introspection was one of the major methods used to collect data. LO1
William James, in the United States, used observations of his own behavior as the basis of his textbook, Principles of Psychology. LO1
In the first decades of the 20th century, John Watson founded behaviorism, partly in reaction to structuralism and the method of analytic introspection. His procedures were based on classical conditioning. Behaviorism’s central tenet was that psychology was properly studied by measuring
Beginning in the 1930s and ’40s, B. F. Skinner’s work on operant conditioning assured that behaviorism would be the dominant force in psychology through the 1950s. LO1
In the 1950s, a number of events occurred that led to what has been called the cognitive revolution—a decline in the influence of behaviorism and the reemergence of the study of the mind. These events included the following: (a) Chomsky’s critique of Skinner’s book Verbal Behavior; (b) the
The phenomenon of memory consolidation was used to illustrate how answering one question can lead to many additional questions, and how cognitive psychologists study the mind by using both behavioral and physiological approaches. Using these two approaches together results in a more complete
Models play an essential role in cognitive psychology, by helping organize data from many experiments.Broadbent’s model of attention is an example of one of the early models in cognitive psychology. It is important to realize that models such as this one are constantly being revised in response
Two things that may help in learning the material in this book are to read the study hints in Chapter 7, which are based on some of the things we know about memory research, and to realize that the book is constructed like a story, with basic ideas or principles followed by supporting evidence. LO1
What do you think the “hot topics” of cognitive psychology are, based on what you have seen or heard in the media? Hint: Look for stories such as the following: “Scientists Race to Find Memory Loss Cure”; “Defendant Says He Can’t Remember What Happened.” LO1
The idea that we have something called “the mind” that is responsible for our thoughts and behavior is reflected in the many ways that the word mind can be used. A few examples of the use of mind in everyday language were cited at the beginning of the chapter. See how many more examples you can
The idea that the operation of the mind can be described as occurring in a number of stages was the central principle of the information-processing approach that was one of the outcomes of the cognitive revolution that began in the 1950s. How can Donders’ reaction time experiment from the 1800s
Donders compared the results of his simple and choice reaction time experiments to infer how long it took to make the decision as to which button to push, when given a choice. But what about other kinds of decisions?Design an experiment to determine the time it takes to make a more complex
The birth of cognitive psychology. To get a feel for the kinds of things cognitive psychologists were concerned with near the beginning of the “cognitive revolution,” look at Ulrich Neisser’s book, Cognitive Psychology. This was the first modern textbook on the subject. Try comparing it to
How the mind works. An engaging book for the general reader, How The Mind Works, is worth checking out for a well-known cognitive psychologist’s perspective on the mind. Pinker describes the mind as a natural computer and presents his ideas regarding how the mind has been shaped by the process of
What is cognitive neuroscience, and why is it necessary? (24)
How is information transmitted from one place to another in the nervous system? (26)
How are things in the environment, such as faces and trees, represented in the brain? (38)
Is it possible to read a person’s mind by measuring the activity of the person’s brain? (41)
How did early brain researchers describe the brain in terms of a nerve net? LO1
56How does the idea of individual neurons differ from the idea of a nerve net? LO1
Describe the research that led Cajal to propose the neuron doctrine. LO1
Describe the structure of a neuron. Describe the synapse and neural circuits. LO1
How are action potentials recorded from a neuron? What do these signals look like, and what is the relation between action potentials and stimulus intensity? LO1
How has the question of how action potentials indicate different qualities been answered? LO1
Describe evidence for localization of function for perception, including the primary receiving areas of the brain and evidence from brain damage and brain imaging. Be sure you understand the principle behind brain imaging. LO1
How did Broca and Wernicke use the behavior of patients with brain damage to provide evidence for localization of function? LO1
What behavioral evidence caused a modifi cation of the idea of two areas, one for language production and one for language understanding? What is the ERP, and how has it been used to demonstrate different aspects of language functioning? What basic conclusions about localization of function have
What is distributed processing? How was it described in the text, beginning with how information about faces is localized in the brain? What is “particularly signifi cant” about faces? LO1
How was distributed processing illustrated by the example of the rolling red ball? The physiology of memory? LO1
What does it mean to say that a tree, or other object, is represented in the brain? How did early researchers describe this representation in terms of feature detectors? LO1
How do current researchers describe the neural code for faces? Be sure you understand specifi city coding, grandmother cells, and distributed coding. What is the distinction between distributed coding, as described in this section, and distributed processing that was described earlier? LO1
Describe recent experiments that have been able to demonstrate a form of“mind reading” by monitoring brain activity? LO1
Cognitive neuroscience is the study of the physiological basis of cognition. LO1
Ramon y Cajal’s research resulted in the abandonment of the neural net theory in favor of the neuron doctrine, which states that individual cells called neurons transmit signals in the nervous system. LO1
Signals can be recorded from neurons using microelectrodes. Adrian, who recorded the first signals from single neurons, determined that action potentials remain the same size as they travel down an axon and that increasing stimulus intensity increases the rate of nerve firing. LO1
The idea of localization of function in perception is supported by the existence of a separate primary receiving area for each sense, by the effects of brain damage on perception (for example, prospoganosia), and by the results of brain imaging experiments. LO1
Brain imaging measures brain activation by measuring blood flow in the brain. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is widely used to determine brain activation during cognitive functioning. One result of brain imaging experiments has been the identification of areas in the human brain that
Research on brain-damaged patients by Broca and Wernicke provided evidence for localization of function for language. Based on the patients’ symptoms, they identified two different conditions, Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia, as involving problems in language production and language
Recent research has resulted in modification of the Broca/Wernicke model. Behavioral research has shown that patients with Broca’s aphasia can, under certain conditions, have difficulty understanding language.Physiological research, involving both studying braindamaged patients and recording the
The idea of distributed processing is that specific functions are processed by many different areas in the brain.This principle is illustrated by the finding that faces activate many areas of the brain and by the simpler example of the rolling red ball, which also activates a number of areas. LO1
Distributed processing also occurs for other cognitive functions, such as memory, decision making, and problem solving. A basic principle of cognition is that different cognitive functions often involve similar mechanisms. LO1
Objects and properties of the environment are represented by electrical signals in the nervous system. LO1
Research indicating that individual neurons in the visual system fire to specific simple stimuli, such as oriented bars, led to the idea of feature detectors. This research suggests that a particular object is represented by the firing of many neurons, creating a unique “chorus” of electrical
Among proposals regarding the nature of the neural code are specificity theory, which includes the idea of grandmother cells, and distributed coding. Current evidence favors the idea of distributed coding. Thus, a particular face would be represented by the pattern of firing across a number of
The idea of a distributed neural code also applies to memory and other cognitive functions. The code for memory involves stored information. LO1
Computer programs have recently been developed that can, with a surprising degree of accuracy, use data from brain imaging, collected as a person is observing pictures of different objects, to identify from a group of objects the specific object that a person is seeing. LO1
Some cognitive psychologists have called the brain the mind’s computer. What are computers good at, that the brain is not? How do you think the brain and the mind compare in terms of complexity? What advantage does the brain have over a computer? LO1
People generally feel that they are experiencing their environment directly, especially when it comes to sensory experiences such as seeing, hearing, or feeling the texture of a surface. However, our knowledge of how the nervous system operates indicates that this is not the case.Why would a
When brain activity is being measured in an fMRI scanner, the person’s head is surrounded by an array of magnets and must be kept perfectly still. In addition, the operation of the machine is very noisy. How do these characteristics of brain scanners limit the types of behaviors that can be
It has been argued that we will never be able to fully understand how the brain operates because doing this involves using the brain to study itself. What do you think of this argument? LO1
How does damage to the brain affect the ability to remember what has happened in the past and the ability to form new memories of ongoing experiences? (148)
How are memories for personal experiences, like what you did last summer, different from memories for facts, like the capital of your state? (157)
How do the different types of memory interact in our everyday experience? (159)
How has memory loss been depicted in popular films? (165)
He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist. L01
Galileo, the great Italian scientist, sent him a letter about it. L01
A letter about it was sent to Galileo, the great Italian scientist. L01
He sent Galileo, the great Italian scientist, a letter about it. L01
What was Jimmy G.’s problem, and why did it occur? L01
Describe the “time scale” of short-term and long-term memory. Are all longterm memories created equal? L01
How does the example of Tony and Cindy show how LTM and WM work together? (Hint: James Bond movie) L01
Describe how differences between STM/WM and LTM have been demonstrated based on (a) the serial position curve, (b) neuropsychological evidence, and (c) differences in coding. L01
Describe the method of recognition, including how it differs from recall and how this method was used in the Sachs experiment involving the passage about Galileo. L01
What is the difference between explicit memory and implicit memory? What are the two types of explicit memory? The three types of implicit memory? L01
How are episodic and semantic memory distinguished from each other? L01
Describe the following evidence for the idea that semantic and episodic memories involve different mechanisms: (a) neuropsychological evidence; (b) brain imaging evidence. L01
What are the connections between episodic and semantic memory? L01
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