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Cognitive Psychology Connecting Mind Research And Everyday Experience 3rd Edition E. Bruce Goldstein - Solutions

Think about a decision you have made recently. It can be a minor one, such as deciding which restaurant to go to on Saturday evening, or a more important one, such as picking an apartment or deciding which college to attend. Analyze this decision, taking into account the processes you went through
Create deductive syllogisms and inductive arguments that apply to the decision you analyzed in the previous question. L01
Johanna has a reputation for being extremely good at justifying her behavior by a process that is often called“rationalization.” For example, she justifies the fact that she eats anything she wants by saying “Ten years ago this food was supposed to be bad for you, and now they are saying it
From watching the news or reading the paper, what can you conclude about how the availability heuristic can influence our conceptions of the nature of the lives of different groups of people (for example, movie stars, rich people, various racial, ethnic, or cultural groups) and how accurate these
Describe a situation in which you made a poor decision because your judgment was clouded by emotion or some other factor. L01
What kinds of events from their lives are people most likely to remember? (206)
Is there something special about memory for extraordinary events like the 9/11 terrorist attacks? (208)
What properties of the memory system make it both highly functional and also prone to error? (213)
Why is eyewitness testimony often cited as the cause of wrongful convictions? (227)
What is autobiographical memory? What does it mean to say that it includes both episodic and semantic components? lo1
What does it mean to say that autobiographical memories are “multidimensional”?How did Cabeza’s “photography” experiment provide evidence for this idea? lo1
What types of events are often the most memorable? What would a plot of“events remembered” versus “age” look like for a 50-year-old person? What theories have been proposed to explain the peak that occurs in this function? lo1
What is the evidence that emotionally charged events are easier to remember than nonemotional events? Describe the role of the amygdala in emotional memory, including brain scan (fMRI) and neuropsychological (patient B.P.)evidence linking the amygdala and memory. lo1
The idea of fl ashbulb memories has been debated by psychologists. What is behind the idea that some memories are “special” and are therefore labeled as“fl ashbulb” memories? What evidence indicates that memories for fl ashbulb experiences are not long-lived like photographs? What evidence
Source monitoring errors provide an example of the constructive nature of memory. Describe what source monitoring and source monitoring errors are and why they are considered “constructive.” How does Bartlett’s “War of the Ghosts” experiment provide an example of source monitoring errors?
Describe the following examples of situations that involved source monitoring errors: (a) familiarity (becoming famous experiment); (b) world knowledge(gender stereotype experiment). Be sure you can describe the experiments related to each example. lo1
Describe the following examples of how memory errors can occur because of a person’s knowledge of the world: (a) making inferences (pragmatic inference; “ birdhouse” experiment; baseball experiment); (b) schemas and scripts(offi ce experiment; dentist experiment); (c) false recall and
What is the evidence from clinical case studies that “super memory” may have some disadvantages? What are some advantages of constructive memory? lo1
Why can we say that memory is highly functional but that it may not be perfectly suited to all situations? lo1
Experiments showing that memory can be affected by suggestion have led to the proposal of the misinformation effect. How has the misinformation effect been demonstrated, and what mechanisms have been proposed to explain this effect? lo1
How has it been shown that suggestion can infl uence people’s memories for early events in their lives? lo1
What is the evidence, both from “real life” and from laboratory experiments, that eyewitness testimony is not always accurate? Describe how the following factors have been shown to lead to errors in eyewitness testimony: weapons focus, familiarity, leading questions, feedback from a police offi
What procedures have cognitive psychologists proposed to increase the accuracy of eyewitness testimony? lo1
How does the suggestibility of memory pose problems for situations in which adults, during therapy, remember having been abused as children? lo1
A.J. is an example of someone with exceptional memory for personal events; normally, however, people remember some things about their lives and forget other things. lo1
Autobiographical memory (AM) has been defined as recollected events that belong to a person’s past. It consists of both episodic and semantic components, with episodic components more likely to be present for memories of more recent events. lo1
The multidimensional nature of AM has been studied by showing that people who have lost their visual memory due to brain damage experience a loss of AM. Also supporting the multidimensional nature of AM is Cabeza’s experiment, which showed that a person’s brain is more extensively activated
When people are asked to remember events over their lifetime, transition points are particularly memorable. Also, people over 40 tend to have good memory for events they experienced from adolescence to early adulthood. This is called the reminiscence bump. lo1
The following hypotheses have been proposed to explain the reminiscence bump: (a) self-image, (b) cognitive, and(c) cultural life script. lo1
Emotions are often associated with events that are easily remembered. The link between emotions and memory has been demonstrated behaviorally and physiologically. The amygdala is a key structure for emotional memories. lo1
Brown and Kulik proposed the term flashbulb memory to refer to a person’s memory for the circumstances surrounding hearing about shocking, highly charged events.They proposed that these flashbulb memories are vivid and detailed, like photographs. lo1
A number of experiments indicate that it is not accurate to equate flashbulb memories with photographs because, as time passes, people make many errors when reporting flashbulb memories. Studies of memories for hearing about the Challenger explosion showed that people’s responses became more
Talarico and Rubin’s study of people’s memory for when they first heard about the 9/11 terrorist attack indicates that memory errors increased with time, just as for other memories, but that people remained more confident of the accuracy of their 9/11 memory. Another 9/11 study, by Davidson and
According to the constructive approach to memory, originally proposed by Bartlett based on his “War of the Ghosts” experiment, what people report as memories are constructed based on what actually happened plus additional factors such as the person’s knowledge, experiences, and expectations.
Source monitoring is the process of determining the origins of our memories, knowledge, or beliefs. A source monitoring error occurs when the source of a memory is misidentified. Cryptomnesia (unconscious plagiarism) is an example of a source monitoring error. lo1
Familiarity (Jacoby’s “becoming famous overnight” experiment) and world knowledge (Marsh’s gender stereotype experiment) can result in source monitoring errors. lo1
General world knowledge can cause memory errors.Inference is one of the mechanisms of the constructive process of memory. The following show that inference based on world knowledge can cause memory errors: (a) pragmatic inference, (b) Bransford and Johnson’s “pounding nail” experiment, and
Our knowledge about what is involved in a particular experience is a schema for that experience. The experiment in which participants were asked to remember what was in an office illustrates how schemas can cause errors in memory reports. lo1
A script is our conception of the sequence of actions that usually occur during a particular experience. The “dentist experiment,” in which a participant is asked to remember a paragraph about going to the dentist, illustrates how scripts can result in memory errors. lo1
The experiment in which people were asked to recall a list of words related to sleep illustrates how our knowledge about things that belong together (for example, that sleep belongs with bed) can result in reporting words that were not on the original list. lo1
Although people often think that it would be an advantage to have a photographic memory, the cases of S. and A.J. show that it may not be an advantage to be able to remember everything perfectly. The fact that our memory system does not store everything may even add to the survival value of the
Memory experiments in which misleading postevent information (MPI) is presented to participants indicate that memory can be influenced by suggestion. An example is Loftus’s traffic accident experiment. The following explanations have been proposed to explain the errors caused by misleading
An experiment by Hyman, in which he created false memories for a party, showed that it is possible to create false memories for early events in a person’s life.A similar experiment by Lindsay showed that this false memory effect for early events can be made stronger by showing the participants a
There is a great deal of evidence that eyewitness testimony about crimes can be prone to memory errors.Some of the reasons for errors in eyewitness testimony are (a) not paying attention to all relevant details, because of the emotional situation during a crime (weapons focus is one example of such
Cognitive psychologists have suggested a number of ways to decrease errors in eyewitness testimony. lo1
The problem of childhood sexual abuse is serious and widespread. There is the potential, however, that false memories for abuse can be created by some of the techniques used by therapists to try to help patients remember events in their past. The problem of differentiating between accurate memories
What do you remember about how you heard about the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001? How confident are you that your memory of these events is accurate?Given the results of experiments on flashbulb memories described in this chapter, what do you think the chances are that your memories might
What do you remember about what you did on the most recent major holiday (Thanksgiving, Christmas, New Year’s, your birthday, etc.)? What do you remember about what you did on the same holiday 1 year earlier?How do these memories differ in terms of (a) how difficult they were to remember, (b) how
There have been a large number of reports of people unjustly imprisoned because of errors in eyewitness testimony, with more cases being reported every day, based on DNA evidence. Given this situation, how would you react to the proposal that eyewitness testimony no longer be admitted as evidence
Interview people of different ages regarding what they remember about their lives. How do your results fit with the results of AM experiments, especially regarding the idea of a reminiscence bump in older people? lo1
The process of reconsolidation was discussed at the end of Chapter 7; How might this idea provide a physiological explanation for the effects of suggestibility on memory that we discussed in this chapter? lo1
Why is it difficult to decide if a particular object belongs to a particular category, such as “chair,” by looking up its definition? (241)
How are the properties of various objects “filed away” in the mind?(243, 256)
How is information about different categories stored in the brain? (260)
Can young infants respond to the categories“cat” and “dog”? (263)
Why is the use of categories so important for our day-to-day functioning? L01
Describe the defi nitional approach to categories. Why does it initially seem like a good way of thinking about categories, but then become troublesome when we consider the kinds of objects that can make up a category? L01
What is the prototype approach? What experiments did Rosch do that demonstrated connections between prototypicality and behavior? L01
What is the exemplar approach to categorization? How does it differ from the prototype approach, and how might the two approaches work together? L01
What does it mean to say that there are different levels within a category?What arguments did Rosch present to support the idea that one of these levels is “privileged”? How has research on categorization by experts led to modifi cations of Rosch’s ideas about which category is “basic” or
What is the basic idea behind the semantic network approach? What is the goal of this approach, and how did the network created by Collins and Quillian accomplish this goal? L01
What is the evidence for and against the Collins and Quillian model? How did Collins and Loftus modify the model to deal with criticisms of the Collins and Quillian model, and how were these modifi cations received by other researchers? L01
What are some of the properties of a good psychological theory? How have these properties been applied to semantic network theories? L01
What is a connectionist network? Describe how a connectionist network learns, considering specifi cally how connection weights are adjusted. Also consider how the way information is represented in a connectionist network differs from the way it is represented in a semantic network. L01
How are categories represented in the brain? Describe evidence from single neuron recording in monkeys, the effects of brain damage in humans, and human brain imaging. L01
How is the ability of young infants to form categories measured? Trace the development between 2 and 7 months of infants’ ability to categorize. What abilities are added after 7 months? L01
Categories are “pointers to knowledge.” Once you know that something is in a category, you know a lot of general things about it and can focus your energy on specifying what is special about this particular object. L01
The definitional approach to categorization doesn’t work because most categories contain members that do not conform to the definition. The philosopher Wittgenstein proposed the idea of family resemblances to deal with the fact that definitions do not include all members of a category. L01
The idea behind the prototypical approach to categorization is that we decide whether an object belongs to a category by deciding whether it is similar to a standard representative of the category, called a prototype. A prototype is formed by averaging category members a person has encountered in
Prototypicality is a term used to describe how well an object resembles the prototype of a particular category. L01
The following is true of high-prototypical objects:(a) They have high family resemblance; (b) statements about them are verified rapidly; (c) they are named first;and (d) they are affected more by priming. L01
The exemplar approach to categorization involves determining whether an object is similar to an exemplar. An exemplar is an actual member of a category that a person has encountered in the past. L01
An advantage of the exemplar approach is that it doesn’t discard information about atypical cases within a category, such as penguin in the bird category. The exemplar approach can also deal more easily with categories that contain widely varying members, like games. L01
Researchers have concluded that people use both approaches to categorization. Prototypes may be more important as people initially learn about categories; later, exemplar information may become more important. Exemplars may work better for small categories (U.S. presidents), and prototypes may work
The kind of organization in which larger, more general categories are divided into smaller, more specific categories is called hierarchical organization. L01
Experiments by Rosch indicate that a basic level of categories (such as guitar, as opposed to musical instrument or rock guitar) is a “privileged” level of categorization that reflects people’s everyday experience. L01
Experiments in which experts were tested show that the basic level of categorization can depend on a person’s degree of expertise. L01
The semantic network approach proposes that concepts are arranged in networks that represent the way concepts are organized in the mind. Collins and Quillian’s model is a network that consists of nodes connected by links. Concepts and properties of concepts are located at the nodes. Properties
Collins and Quillian’s model is supported by the results of experiments using the sentence verification technique.The spreading activation feature of the model is supported by priming experiments. L01
The Collins and Quillian model has been criticized for several reasons: It can’t explain the typicality effect, the idea of cognitive economy doesn’t always hold, and it can’t explain all results of sentence verification experiments. L01
Collins and Loftus proposed another semantic network model, designed to deal with criticisms of the Collins and Quillian model. This model was, in turn, criticized because it was so flexible that it could explain any result. L01
The connectionist approach proposes that concepts are represented in networks that consist of input units, hidden units, and output units. Information about concepts is represented in these networks by a distributed activation of these units. This approach is therefore also called the parallel
Connectionist networks learn the correct distributed pattern for a particular concept through a gradual learning process that involves adjusting the weights that determine how activation is transferred from one unit to another. L01
Connectionist networks have a number of features that enable them to reproduce many aspects of human concept formation. L01
The idea that concepts are represented by specialized brain areas has been supported by single neuron recording (Freedman’s monkey experiments), neuropsychological evidence (category-specific knowledge impairments), and by the results of brain scanning experiments in humans (animals versus
Newborn infants are capable of crude categorization.The familiarity/novelty preference procedure has been used to determine the development of categorization from global to basic to specific between 2 and 7 months of age. Further learning during childhood adds more specific knowledge to categories.
In this chapter we have seen how networks can be constructed that link different levels of concepts. In Chapter 7 we saw how organizational trees can be constructed that organize knowledge about a particular topic (see Figures 7.5 and 7.6). Create a tree that represents the material in this chapter
Do a survey to determine people’s conception of “typical” members of various categories. For example, ask several people to name, as quickly as possible, three typical“birds” or “vehicles” or “beverages.” What do the results of this survey tell you about what level is “basic”
Try asking a number of people to name the objects pictured in Figure 9.10. Rosch, who ran her experiment in the early 1970s, found that the most common responses were guitar, fish, and pants. Notice whether the responses you receive are the same as or different from the responses reported by Rosch.
How do “pictures in your head” that you create by imagining an object compare to the experience you have when you see the actual object? (272)
What happens in your brain when you create visual images with your eyes closed? (279)
How does damage to the brain affect the ability to form visual images?(282)
How can we use visual imagery to improve memory? (286)
Is imagery just a “laboratory phenomenon,” or does it occur in real life? lo1
Make a list of the important events in the history of the study of imagery in psychology, from the imageless thought debate of the 1800s to the studies of imagery that occurred early in the cognitive revolution in the 1960s. lo1
How did Kosslyn use the technique of mental scanning (in the boat and island experiments) to demonstrate similarities between perception and imagery? Why were Kosslyn’s experiments criticized, and how did Kosslyn answer Pylyshyn’s criticism with additional experiments? lo1
Describe the spatial (or depictive) and propositional explanations of the mechanism underlying imagery. How can the propositional explanation interpret the results of Kosslyn’s boat and island image-scanning experiments? lo1
What is the tacit knowledge explanation of imagery experiments? What experiment was done to counter this explanation? lo1
How have experiments demonstrated interactions between imagery and perception? What additional evidence is needed to help settle the imagery debate, according to Farah? lo1
Describe how experiments using the following physiological techniques have provided evidence of parallels between imagery and perception: (a) brain imaging; (b) deactivation of part of the brain; (c) neuropsychology; and (d) recording from single neurons. lo1

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