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chemistry a molecular approach

Chemistry A Molecular Approach 5th Edition Nivaldo Tro - Solutions

Use data from Appendix IIB to calculate ΔS°rxn for each of the reactions. In each case, try to rationalize the sign of ΔS°rxn.Appendix IIB a. C₂H4(g) + H₂(g) →→→ C₂H6(g) b. C(s) + H₂O(g) →→→ CO(g) + H₂(g) c. CO(g) + H₂O(g) → H₂(g) + CO₂(g) d. 2 H₂S(g) + 3 O₂(g)
Rank each set of substances in order of increasing standard molar entropy (S°). Explain your reasoning. a. 1₂(g); F₂(g); Br2(g); Cl₂(g) b. H₂O(g); H₂O₂(g); H₂S(g) c. C(s, graphite); C(s, diamond); C(s, amorphous)
Use data from Appendix IIB to calculate ΔS°rxn for each of the reactions. In each case, try to rationalize the sign of ΔS°rxn.Appendix IIB a. 3 NO₂(g) + H₂O(1)→ b. Cr₂O3(s) + 3 CO(g) c. SO₂(g) + O₂(g) 2 HNO3(aq) + NO(g) 2 Cr(s) + 3 CO₂(g) SO3(g) d. N₂O4(g) + 4H₂(g) →→→
Find ΔS° for the formation of CH2Cl2( g) from its gaseous elements in their standard states. Rationalize the sign of ΔS°.
Find ΔS° for the reaction between nitrogen gas and fluorine gas to form nitrogen trifluoride gas. Rationalize the sign of ΔS°.
Methanol (CH3OH) burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. Write a balanced equation for the combustion of liquid methanol and calculate ΔH °rxn, ΔS°rxn, and ΔG°rxn at 25 °C.Is the combustion of methanol spontaneous?
For each reaction, calculate ΔH°rxn, ΔS°rxn, and ΔG°rxn at 25 °C and state whether or not the reaction is spontaneous. If the reaction is not spontaneous, would a change in temperature make it spontaneous? If so, should the temperature be raised or lowered from 25 °C? 2 NO₂(g) HCI(g) +
In photosynthesis, plants form glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water. Write a balanced equation for photosynthesis and calculate ΔH °rxn, ΔS°rxn, and ΔG°rxn at 25 °C.Is photosynthesis spontaneous?
For each reaction, calculate ΔH°rxn, ΔS°rxn, and ΔG°rxn at 25 °C and state whether or not the reaction is spontaneous. If the reaction is not spontaneous, would a change in temperature make it spontaneous? If so, should the temperature be raised or lowered from 25 °C? a. 2 CH₂(g) b. 2
Use standard free energies of formation to calculate ΔG° at 25 °C for each reaction in Problem 61. How do the values of ΔG° calculated this way compare to those calculated from ΔH° and ΔS°? Which of the two methods could be used to determine how ΔG° changes with temperature?Problem 61For
Use standard free energies of formation to calculate ΔG° at 25 °C for each reaction in Problem 62. How well do the values of ΔG° calculated this way compare to those calculated from ΔH° and ΔS°? Which of the two methods could be used to determine how ΔG° changes with temperature?Problem
Determine ΔG° for the reaction:Use the following reactions with known ΔG°rxn values: Fe₂O3(s) + 3 CO(g) 2 Fe(s) + 3 CO₂(g)
Calculate ΔG°rxn for the reaction:Use the following reactions and given ΔG°rxn values: CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + COz(g)
Consider the reaction: 2 NO(g) + O2(g) → 2 NO2(g) Estimate ΔG° for this reaction at each temperature and predict whether or not the reaction is spontaneous. (Assume that ΔH° and ΔS° do not change too much within the given temperature range.)a. 298 K b. 715 K c. 855 K
Consider the reaction: CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)Estimate ΔG° for this reaction at each temperature and predict whether or not the reaction is spontaneous. (Assume that ΔH° and ΔS° do not change too much within the given temperature range.)a. 298 K b. 1055 K c. 1455 K
Consider the sublimation of iodine at 25.0 °C:a. Find ΔG°rxn at 25.0 °C.b. Find ΔG°rxn at 25.0 °C under the following nonstandard conditions:i. PI2 = 1.00 mmHg ii. PI2 = 0.100 mmHg c. Explain why iodine spontaneously sublimes in open air at 25.0 °C. 1₂(s) → 1₂(8)
Consider the evaporation of methanol at 25.0 °C:a. Find ΔG°r at 25.0 °C.b. Find ΔGr at 25.0 °C under the following nonstandard conditions:i. PCH3OH = 150.0 mmHgii. PCH3OH = 100.0 mmHgiii. PCH3OH = 10.0 mmHgc. Explain why methanol spontaneously evaporates in open air at 25.0 °C.
Consider the reaction:Calculate ΔG for this reaction at 25 °C under the following conditions:i. PCH3OH = 0.855 atmii. PCO = 0.125 atmiii. PH2 = 0.183 atm CH3OH(g) = CO(g) + 2 H₂(g)
Consider the reaction:Calculate ΔG for this reaction at 25 °C under the following conditions:i. PCO2 = 0.112 atmii. PCCl4 = 0.174 atmiii. PCOCl2 = 0.744 atm CO₂(g) + CCl4(g) = 2 COC1₂(g)
Use standard enthalpies of formation to calculate the standard change in enthalpy for the melting of ice. (The ΔH°f for H2O(s) is -291.8 kJ/mol.) Use this value to calculate the mass of ice required to cool 355 mL of a beverage from room temperature (25.0 °C) to 0.0 °C. Assume that the specific
Consider the decomposition of liquid hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to form water and oxygen.a. What is the heat of formation for hydrogen peroxide?b. What is the heat of formation for liquid water?c. What is the heat of formation for gaseous oxygen? Why?d. Write the balanced chemical equations that
Calculate the wavelength of light emitted when an electron in the hydrogen atom makes a transition from an orbital with n = 5 to an orbital with n = 3.a) 1.28 * 10-6 mb) 6.04 * 10-7 mc) 2.28 * 10-6 md) 1.55 * 10-19 m
What is an emission spectrum? How does an emission spectrum of a gas in a discharge tube differ from a white light spectrum?
What is a trajectory? What kind of information do you need to predict the trajectory of a particle?
Why does the uncertainty principle make it impossible to predict a trajectory for the electron?
Which hybridization scheme allows the central atom to form more than four bonds? sp³, sp³d, sp²
Determine the molecular geometry and sketch each molecule or ion, using the bond conventions shown in “Representing Molecular Geometries on Paper”.a. BrF5 b. SCl6 c. PF5 d. IF4 +
Write a hybridization and bonding scheme for each molecule.Sketch the molecule, including overlapping orbitals, and label all bonds using the notation shown in Examples 11.6 and 11.7.a. CCl4 b. NH3 c. OF2 d. CO2Examples 11.6Write a hybridization and bonding scheme for bromine trifluoride,
Write a hybridization and bonding scheme for each molecule.Sketch the molecule, including overlapping orbitals, and label all bonds using the notation shown in Examples 11.6 and 11.7.a. CH2Br2 b. SO2 c. NF3 d. BF3Examples 11.6Write a hybridization and bonding scheme for bromine trifluoride,
Write a hybridization and bonding scheme for each molecule or ion. Sketch the structure, including overlapping orbitals, and label all bonds using the notation shown in Examples 11.6 and 11.7.a. COCl2 (carbon is the central atom)b. BrF5 c. XeF2 d. I3–Examples 11.6Write a hybridization and
Write a hybridization and bonding scheme for each molecule that contains more than one interior atom. Indicate the hybridization about each interior atom. Sketch the structure, including overlapping orbitals, and label all bonds using the notation shown in Examples 11.6 and 11.7.Examples 11.6Write
Write a hybridization and bonding scheme for each molecule or ion. Sketch the structure, including overlapping orbitals, and label all bonds using the notation shown in Examples 11.6 and 11.7.a. SO32–b. PF6–c. BrF3 d. HCNExamples 11.6Write a hybridization and bonding scheme for bromine
Write a hybridization and bonding scheme for each molecule that contains more than one interior atom. Indicate the hybridization about each interior atom. Sketch the structure, including overlapping orbitals, and label all bonds using the notation shown in Examples 11.6 and 11.7.Examples 11.6Write
Consider the structure of the amino acid alanine. Indicate the hybridization about each interior atom. H Η Η Η H H H
Consider the structure of the amino acid aspartic acid. Indicate the hybridization about each interior atom. H 0 0 Z H H H H О
Sketch the bonding molecular orbital that results from the linear combination of two 1s orbitals. Indicate the region where interference occurs and state the kind of interference (constructive or destructive).
Neither the VSEPR model nor the hybridization model is able to account for the experimental observation that the F—Ba—F bond angle in gaseous BaF2 is 108° rather than the predicted 180°. Suggest some possible explanations for this observation.
Draw the Lewis structure for acetamide (CH3CONH2), an organic compound, and determine the geometry about each interior atom. Experiments show that the geometry about the nitrogen atom in acetamide is nearly planar. What resonance structure can account for the planar geometry about the nitrogen atom?
What is the fundamental difference between an amorphous solid and a crystalline solid?
If you combine 25.0 g of a solute that has a mass of 25.0 g/mol with 100.0 g of a solvent, what is the molality of the resulting solution?(a) 0.25 m (b) 10.0 m (c) 1.0 m (d) 8.0 m
A first-order reaction (A → B) has a half-life of 25 minutes. If the initial concentration of A is 0.300 M, what is the concentration of B after 50 minutes?(a) 0.300 M (b) 0.225 M (c) 0.150 M (d) 0.100 M
Molecular iodine dissociates at 625 K with a first-order rate constant of 0.271 s-1. What is the half-life of this reaction?
The diagram shows the energy of a reaction as the reaction progresses. Label each blank box in the diagram.a. Reactants b. Productsc. Activation energy (Ea)d. Enthalpy of reaction (ΔHrxn) Energy Reaction progress
Consider the exothermic reaction:If you were trying to maximize the amount of C2H4Cl2 produced, which tactic might you try? Assume that the reaction mixture reaches equilibrium.a. Increasing the reaction volume b. Removing C2H4Cl2 from the reaction mixture as it forms c. Lowering the reaction
Calculate [H3O+] for a solution with a pH of 4.80.
Classify each anion as a weak base or pH-neutral.(a) NO3– (b) NO2– (c) C2H3O2–
The AIDS drug zalcitabine (also known as ddC) is a weak base with a pKb of 9.8.What percentage of the base is protonated in an aqueous zalcitabine solution containing 565 mg/L?
What is the pH range of human blood? How is human blood maintained in this pH range?
What is a buffer? How does a buffer work? How does it neutralize added acid? Added base?
What is the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation, and why is it useful?
What is the pH of a buffer solution when the concentrations of both buffer components (the weak acid and its conjugate base) are equal? What happens to the pH when the buffer contains more of the weak acid than the conjugate base? More of the conjugate base than the weak acid?
Suppose that a buffer contains equal amounts of a weak acid and its conjugate base. What happens to the relative amounts of the weak acid and conjugate base when a small amount of strong acid is added to the buffer? What happens when a small amount of strong base is added?
How do you use the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation to calculate the pH of a buffer containing a base and its conjugate acid? Specifically, how do you determine the correct value for pKa?
What factors influence the effectiveness of a buffer? What are the characteristics of an effective buffer?
What is the effective pH range of a buffer (relative to the pKa of the weak acid component)?
Describe acid–base titration. What is the equivalence point?
The pH at the equivalence point of the titration of a strong acid with a strong base is 7.0. However, the pH at the equivalence point of the titration of a weak acid with a strong base is above 7.0. Explain.
The volume required to reach the equivalence point of an acid–base titration depends on the volume and concentration of the acid or base to be titrated and on the concentration of the acid or base used to do the titration. It does not, however, depend on whether or not the acid or base being
In the titration of a strong acid with a strong base, how do you calculate these quantities?a. Initial pHb. PH before the equivalence pointc. PH at the equivalence pointd. PH beyond the equivalence point
In the titration of a weak acid with a strong base, how do you calculate these quantities?a. Initial pH b. PH before the equivalence point c. PH at one-half the equivalence point d. PH at the equivalence point e. PH beyond the equivalence point
You mix a 200.0-mL sample of a solution that is 1.5 * 10-3 M in Cu(NO3)2 with a 250.0-mL sample of a solution that is 0.20 M in NH3. After the solution reaches equilibrium, what concentration of Cu2+(aq) remains?
The titration of a polyprotic acid with sufficiently different pKas displays two equivalence points. Why?
In the titration of a polyprotic acid, the volume required to reach the first equivalence point is identical to the volume required to reach the second one. Why?
What is the difference between the endpoint and the equivalence point in a titration?
What is an indicator? How can an indicator signal the equivalence point of a titration?
What is the solubility product constant? Write a general expression for the solubility constant of a compound with the general formula AmXn.
What is molar solubility? How can you obtain the molar solubility of a compound from Ksp?
How does a common ion affect the solubility of a compound? More specifically, how is the solubility of a compound with the general formula AX different in a solution containing one of the common ions (A+ or X–) than it is in pure water? Explain.
How is the solubility of an ionic compound with a basic anion affected by pH? Explain.
For a given solution containing an ionic compound, what is the relationship between Q, Ksp, and the relative saturation of the solution?
What is selective precipitation? Under which conditions does selective precipitation occur?
What is qualitative analysis? How does qualitative analysis differ from quantitative analysis?
What are the main groups in the general qualitative analysis scheme described in this chapter? Describe the steps and reagents necessary to identify each group.
In which of these solutions will HNO2 ionize less than it does in pure water?a. 0.10 M NaClb. 0.10 M KNO3c. 0.10 M NaOHd. 0.10 M NaNO2
A formic acid solution has a pH of 3.25. Which of these substances will raise the pH of the solution upon addition? Explain your answer.a. HClb. NaBrc. NaCHO2d. KCl
Solve an equilibrium problem to calculate the pH of each solution.a. A solution that is 0.20 M in HCHO2 and 0.15 M in NaCHO2b. A solution that is 0.16 M in NH3 and 0.22 M in NH4Cl
Solve an equilibrium problem to calculate the pH of each solution.a. A solution that is 0.195 M in HC2H3O2 and 0.125 M in KC2H3O2 b. A solution that is 0.255 M in CH3NH2 and 0.135 M in CH3NH3Br
Calculate the percent ionization of a 0.15 M benzoic acid solution in pure water and in a solution containing 0.10 M sodium benzoate. Why does the percent ionization differ significantly in the two solutions?
Calculate the percent ionization of a 0.13 M formic acid solution in pure water and also in a solution containing 0.11 M potassium formate. Explain the difference in percent ionization in the two solutions.
Solve an equilibrium problem to calculate the pH of each solution.a. 0.15 M HFb. 0.15 M NaFc. A mixture that is 0.15 M in HF and 0.15 M in NaF
A buffer contains significant amounts of acetic acid and sodium acetate. Write equations showing how this buffer neutralizes added acid and added base.
A buffer contains significant amounts of ammonia and ammonium chloride. Write equations showing how this buffer neutralizes added acid and added base.
Use the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation to calculate the pH of each solution in Problem 29.Problem 29Solve an equilibrium problem (using an ICE table) to calculate the pH of each solution.a. A solution that is 0.20 M in HCHO2 and 0.15 M in NaCHO2b. A solution that is 0.16 M in NH3 and 0.22 M in
Use the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation to calculate the pH of each solution in Problem 30.Problem 30Solve an equilibrium problem to calculate the pH of each solution.a. A solution that is 0.195 M in HC2H3O2 and 0.125 M in KC2H3O2 b. A solution that is 0.255 M in CH3NH2 and 0.135 M in CH3NH3Br
Use the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation to calculate the pH of each solution.a. A solution that is 0.135 M in HClO and 0.155 M in KClOb. A solution that contains 1.05% C2H5NH2 by mass and 1.10% C2H5NH3Br by massc. A solution that contains 10.0 g of HC2H3O2 and 10.0 g of NaC2H3O2 in 150.0 mL of
Use the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation to calculate the pH of each solution.a. A solution that is 0.145 M in propanoic acid and 0.115 M in potassium propanoate b. A solution that contains 0.785% C5H5N by mass and 0.985% C5H5NHCl by mass c. A solution that contains 15.0 g of HF and 25.0 g of NaF
Calculate the pH of the solution that results from each mixture.a. 50.0 mL of 0.15 M HCHO2 with 75.0 mL of 0.13 M NaCHO2b. 125.0 mL of 0.10 M NH3 with 250.0 mL of 0.10 M NH4Cl
Calculate the pH of the solution that results from each mixture.a. 150.0 mL of 0.25 M HF with 225.0 mL of 0.30 M NaF b. 175.0 mL of 0.10 M C2H5NH2 with 275.0 mL of 0.20 M C2H5NH3Cl
Calculate the ratio of NaF to HF required to create a buffer with pH = 4.00.
Calculate the ratio of CH3NH2 to CH3NH3Cl concentration required to create a buffer with pH = 10.24.
What mass of sodium benzoate should you add to 150.0 mL of a 0.15 M benzoic acid solution to obtain a buffer with a pH of 4.25?
What mass of ammonium chloride should you add to 2.55 L of a 0.155 M NH3 to obtain a buffer with a pH of 9.55?
A 250.0-mL buffer solution is 0.250 M in acetic acid and 0.250 M in sodium acetate.a. What is the initial pH of this solution?b. What is the pH after addition of 0.0050 mol of HCl?c. What is the pH after addition of 0.0050 mol of NaOH?
A 100.0-mL buffer solution is 0.175 M in HClO and 0.150 M in NaClO.a. What is the initial pH of this solution?b. What is the pH after addition of 150.0 mg of HBr?c. What is the pH after addition of 85.0 mg of NaOH?
For each solution, calculate the initial and final pH after adding 0.010 mol of HCl.a. 500.0 mL of pure water b. 500.0 mL of a buffer solution that is 0.125 M in HC2H3O2 and 0.115 M in NaC2H3O2 c. 500.0 mL of a buffer solution that is 0.155 M in C2H5NH2 and 0.145 M in C2H5NH3Cl
For each solution, calculate the initial and final pH after adding 0.010 mol of NaOH.a. 250.0 mL of pure water b. 250.0 mL of a buffer solution that is 0.195 M in HCHO2 and 0.275 M in KCHO2 c. 250.0 mL of a buffer solution that is 0.255 M in CH3CH2NH2 and 0.235 M in CH3CH2NH3Cl
A 350.0-mL buffer solution is 0.150 M in HF and 0.150 M in NaF. What mass of NaOH can this buffer neutralize before the pH rises above 4.00? If the same volume of the buffer were 0.350 M in HF and 0.350 M in NaF, what mass of NaOH could be handled before the pH rises above 4.00?
A 100.0-mL buffer solution is 0.100 M in NH3 and 0.125 M in NH4Br. What mass of HCl can this buffer neutralize before the pH falls below 9.00? If the same volume of the buffer were 0.250 M in NH3 and 0.400 M in NH4Br, what mass of HCl could be handled before the pH fell below 9.00?
Determine whether or not the mixing of each pair of solutions results in a buffer.a. 100.0 mL of 0.10 M NH3; 100.0 mL of 0.15 M NH4Clb. 50.0 mL of 0.10 M HCl; 35.0 mL of 0.150 M NaOHc. 50.0 mL of 0.15 M HF; 20.0 mL of 0.15 M NaOHd. 175.0 mL of 0.10 M NH3; 150.0 mL of 0.12 M NaOHe. 125.0 mL of 0.15
Determine whether or not the mixing of each pair of solutions results in a buffer.a. 75.0 mL of 0.10 M HF; 55.0 mL of 0.15 M NaFb. 150.0 mL of 0.10 M HF; 135.0 mL of 0.175 M HClc. 165.0 mL of 0.10 M HF; 135.0 mL of 0.050 M KOHd. 125.0 mL of 0.15 M CH3NH2; 120.0 mL of 0.25 M CH3NH3Cle. 105.0 mL of

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