Introduction To Logic 15th Edition Irving M. Copi, Carl Cohen, Victor Rodych - Solutions

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It is usually easy to decide whether or not something is alive. This is because living things share many common attributes, such as the capacity to extract energy from nutrients to drive their various functions, the power to actively respond to changes in their environment, and the ability to grow,
If a man holding a belief which he was taught in childhood or persuaded of afterwards keeps down and pushes away any doubts which arise about it in his mind, purposely avoids the reading of books and the company of men that call in question or discuss it, and regards as impious those questions
The coarsest type of humor is the practical joke: pulling away the chair from the dignitary’s lowered bottom. The victim is perceived first as a person of consequence, then suddenly as an inert body subject to the laws of physics: authority is debunked by gravity, mind by matter; man is degraded
Atoms are the basic building blocks of all matter. They can combine to form molecules, whose properties are generally very different from those of the constituent atoms. Table salt, for example, a simple chemical compound formed from chlorine and sodium, resembles neither the poisonous gas nor the
Dachshunds are ideal dogs for small children, as they are already stretched and pulled to such a length that the child cannot do much harm one way or the other.Determine which of the following passages are arguments. For those that are, identify the conclusion. For those that are not, determine the
Since the 1950s a malady called whirling disease has invaded U.S. fishing streams, frequently attacking rainbow trout. A parasite deforms young fish, which often chase their tails before dying, hence the name.Determine which of the following passages are arguments. For those that are, identify the
For organisms at the sea surface, sinking into deep water usually means death. Plant cells cannot photosynthesize in the dark depths. Fishes and other animals that descend lose contact with the main surface food supply and themselves become food for strange deep-living predators.Determine which of
No business concern wants to sell on credit to a customer who will prove unable or unwilling to pay his or her account. Consequently, most business organizations include a credit department which must reach a decision on the credit worthiness of each prospective customer.Determine which of the
Young people at universities study to achieve knowledge and not to learn a trade. We must all learn how to support ourselves, but we must also learn how to live. We need a lot of engineers in the modern world, but we do not want a world of modern engineers.Determine which of the following passages
Bear one thing in mind before you begin to write your paper: Famous literary works, especially works regarded as classics, have been thoroughly studied to the point where prevailing opinion on them has assumed the character of orthodoxy.Determine which of the following passages are arguments. For
Economics is of practical value in business. An understanding of the overall operation of the economic system puts the business executive in a better position to formulate policies. The executive who understands the causes and consequences of inflation is better equipped during inflationary periods
Lions at Kruger National Park in South Africa are dying of tuberculosis. “All of the lions in the park may be dead within ten years because the disease is incurable, and the lions have no natural resistance,” said the deputy director of the Department of Agriculture.Determine which of the
Any unit of length, when cubed, becomes a unit of volume. Thus, the cubic meter, cubic centimeter, and cubic millimeter are all units of volume.Determine which of the following passages are arguments. For those that are, identify the conclusion. For those that are not, determine the kind of
The pace of reading, clearly, depends entirely upon the reader. He may read as slowly or as rapidly as he can or wishes to read. If he does not understand something, he may stop and reread it, or go in search of elucidation before continuing. The reader can accelerate his pace when the material is
The pace of reading, clearly, depends entirely upon the reader. He may read as slowly or as rapidly as he can or wishes to read. If he does not understand something, he may stop and reread it, or go in search of elucidation before continuing. The reader can accelerate his pace when the material is
Mortality rates for women undergoing early abortions, where the procedure is legal, appear to be as low as or lower than the rates for normal childbirth. Consequently, any interest of the state in protecting the woman from an inherently hazardous procedure, except when it would be equally dangerous
I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures. I believe that we must assist free peoples to work out their own destinies in their own way. I believe that our help should be
Fictional characters behave according to the same psychological probabilities as real people. But the characters of fiction are found in exotic dilemmas that real people hardly encounter. Consequently, fiction provides us with the opportunity to ponder how people react in uncommon situations, and
Fictional characters behave according to the same psychological probabilities as real people. But the characters of fiction are found in exotic dilemmas that real people hardly encounter. Consequently, fiction provides us with the opportunity to ponder how people react in uncommon situations, and
If stem-cell research is restricted, then future cures will not materialize. If future cures do not materialize, then people will die prematurely. Therefore, if stem-cell research is restricted, then people will die prematurely.Determine which of the following passages are arguments. For those that
If stem-cell research is restricted, then future cures will not materialize. If future cures do not materialize, then people will die prematurely. Therefore, if stem-cell research is restricted, then people will die prematurely.Determine which of the following passages are arguments. For those that
Mosquito bites are not always the harmless little irritations most of us take them to be. For example, some mosquitoes carry West Nile virus, and people who are infected can become very sick or even die.Determine which of the following passages are arguments. For those that are, identify the
It is strongly recommended that you have your house inspected for termite damage at the earliest possible opportunity.Determine which of the following passages are arguments. For those that are, identify the conclusion. For those that are not, determine the kind of nonargument.
A mammal is a vertebrate animal that nurses its offspring. Thus, cats and dogs are mammals, as are sheep, monkeys, rabbits, and bears.Determine which of the following passages are arguments. For those that are, identify the conclusion. For those that are not, determine the kind of nonargument.
Freedom of the press is the most important of our constitutionally guaranteed freedoms. Without it, our other freedoms would be immediately threatened. Furthermore, it provides the fulcrum for the advancement of new freedoms.Determine which of the following passages are arguments. For those that
If public education fails to improve the quality of instruction in both primary and secondary schools, then it is likely that it will lose additional students to the private sector in the years ahead.Determine which of the following passages are arguments. For those that are, identify the
Create the following arguments:1. An argument having one or more premise indicators and the conclusion: “Uniforms should/should not be required in high schools.”2. An argument having a conclusion indicator and the conclusion: “The legal drinking age should/should not be lowered to 18.”3. An
Most of the environmental problems facing us stem, at least in part, from the sheer number of Americans. The average American produces three quarters of a ton of garbage every year, consumes hundreds of gallons of gasoline, and uses large amounts of electricity (often from a nuclear power plant,
Parents who feel guilty for the little time they can (or choose to) spend with their children "pick up" after them-so the children don't learn to face the consequences of their own choices and actions. Parents who allow their children to fail are showing them greater love and respect.The following
Ideally, decisions about health care should be based on the doctor's clinical judgment, patient preference, and scientific evidence. Patients should always be presented with options in their care. Elective cesarean section, however, is not used to treat a problem but to avoid a natural process. An
A person cannot reject free will and still insist on criminality and codes of moral behavior. If people are compelled by forces beyond their control (genes or environment), then their actions, no matter how vile, are excusable. That means the Nuremberg trials of Nazi murderers were invalid, and all
Infectious disease is no longer the leading cause of death in this country, thanks to antibiotics, but there are new strains of bacteria that are resistant to-and others that grow only in the presence of-antibiotics. Yet Congress wants to cut the National Institutes of Health budget. Further cuts
History has shown repeatedly that you cannot legislate morality, nor does anyone have a right to. The real problem is the people who have a vested interest in sustaining the multibillion-dollar drug industry created by the laws against drugs. The legalization of drugs would remove the thrill of
College is the time in which a young mind is supposed to mature and acquire wisdom, and one can only do this by experiencing as much diverse intellectual stimuli as possible. A business student may be a whiz at accounting, but has he or she ever experienced the beauty of a Shakespearean sonnet or
Use truth tables to determine whether the following statement forms are tautologous, self-contradictory, or contingent.{[(p ⊃ q) ⋅ (r ⊃ s)] ⋅ (q ꓦ s)} ⊃ (p ꓦ r)
Use truth tables to determine whether the following statement forms are tautologous, self-contradictory, or contingent.{[(p ⊃ q) · (r ⊃ s)] ⋅ (p ꓦ r)} ⊃ (q ꓦ s)
Using the truth-table definitions of the dot, the wedge, and the tilde (curl), determine which of the following statements are true:(Stockholm is the capital of Norway ꓦ ~Paris is the capital of France) ꓦ~(~ Stockholm is the capital of Norway ⋅ ~London is the capital of England).
Use truth tables to determine the validity or invalidity of each of the following arguments:(P1): (O ꓦ P) ⊃ Q(P2): Q ⊃ (O ⋅ P)∴(O ꓦ P) ⊃ (O ⋅ P)
Use truth tables to determine whether the following statement forms are tautologous, self-contradictory, or contingent.[p ⊃ (q ⊃ p)] ⊃ [(q ⊃ q) ⊃ ~(r ⊃ r)]
Using the truth-table definitions of the dot, the wedge, and the tilde (curl), determine which of the following statements are true:London is the capital of England ⋅ ~(Rome is the capital of Italy ⋅ Rome is the capital of Italy).
Use truth tables to determine the validity or invalidity of each of the following arguments:(P1): M ꓦ (N · ~ N)(P2): M∴ ~(N ⋅ ~ )
Use truth tables to determine whether the following statement forms are tautologous, self-contradictory, or contingent.[p ⊃ (q ⊃ r)] ⊃ [( p ⊃ q) ⊃ ( p ⊃ r )]
Using the truth-table definitions of the dot, the wedge, and the tilde (curl), determine which of the following statements are true:Paris is the capital of France ⋅ ~(Paris is the capital of France ⋅ Rome is the capital of Spain).
Use truth tables to prove the validity or invalidity of each of the argument forms in Section 8.5, Group B, pp. 288–9.(P1): U ⊃ (V ꓦ W)(P2): (V · W) ⊃ ~U∴~U
Use truth tables to determine whether the following statement forms are tautologous, self-contradictory, or contingent.(p ⊃ p) ⊃ (q · ~q)
Use truth tables to prove the validity or invalidity of each of the argument forms in Section 8.5, Group B, pp. 288–9.(P1): (R ꓦ S) ⊃ T(P2): T ⊃ (R ⋅ S)∴(R ⋅ S) ⊃ (R ꓦ S)
Use truth tables to prove the validity or invalidity of each of the argument forms in Section 8.5, Group B, pp. 288–9.(P1): (O ꓦ P) ⊃ Q(P2): Q ⊃ (O ⋅ P)∴(O ꓦ P) ⊃ (O ⋅ P)
Use truth tables to prove the validity or invalidity of each of the argument forms in Section 8.5, Group B, pp. 288–9.(P1): M ꓦ (N · ~ N)(P2): M∴ ~(N ⋅ ~ )
Use truth tables to prove the validity or invalidity of each of the argument forms in Section 8.5, Group B, pp. 288–9.(P1): (G ꓦ H) ⊃ (G · H)(P2): ~(G · H)∴ ~(G ꓦ H)
Use truth tables to prove the validity or invalidity of each of the argument forms in Section 8.5, Group B, pp. 288–9.(P1): E ⊃ F(P2): F ⊃ E∴E ꓦ F
Use truth tables to prove the validity or invalidity of each of the argument forms in Section 8.5, Group B, pp. 288–9.(P1): (C ꓦ D)(C · D)(P2): C · D∴C ꓦ D
For each of the following enthymematic arguments:a. Formulate the plausible premise or conclusion, if any, that is missing but understood.b. Write the argument in standard form, including the missing premise or conclusion needed to make the completed argument valid—if possible—using parameters
Use truth tables to prove the validity or invalidity of each of the argument forms in Section 8.5, Group B, pp. 288–9.(P1): (A ꓦ B) ⊃ (A · B)(P2): A ꓦ B∴A ⋅ B
For the following statements, if there are forced truth-value assignments, make them. If there are no forced truth-value assignments, determine, using Maxim V, the requisite truth-value combinations on which, and the number of ways that, the statement can be true (or false), as the case requires.(C
For the following argument, construct both (a) A direct formal proof of validity and(b) An indirect proof of validity. Compare the lengths of the two proofs. (P₁): (V-W) (XY) (P₂): (-WZ) (Y-A) (P₂): (Z-B)-(-ADC) (P₂): V. X :. ~B.C
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of validity or prove invalidity by means of the STTT. In each case, use the notation in parentheses.If Salome is intelligent and studies hard, then she will get good grades and pass her courses. If Salome studies hard but lacks
The following set of arguments involves, in each case, one inference only, in which one of the ten logical equivalences set forth in this section has been employed. Here are two examples, the first two in the exercise set immediately following.(P1): [V ⊃ ~ (W ꓦ X)] . (Y ꓦ Z)∴ {[V ⊃ ~ (W
For each of the following arguments, inferring just two statements from the premises will produce a formal proof of its validity. Construct a formal proof for each of these arguments.In these formal proofs, and in all the proofs to follow in later sections, note to the right of each inferred
For the following statements, if there are forced truth-value assignments, make them. If there are no forced truth-value assignments, determine, using Maxim V, the requisite truth-value combinations on which, and the number of ways that, the statement can be true (or false), as the case requires.A
Here follows a set of twenty elementary valid arguments. They are valid because each of them is exactly in the form of one of the nine elementary valid argument forms. For each of them, state the rule of inference by which its conclusion follows from its premise or premises.(P1): (J ⊃ K) ⋅ (K
Use Conditional Proof (C.P.) to prove that the following statements are tautologies.R ⊃ ~~ R
The following set of arguments involves, in each case, one inference only, in which one of the ten logical equivalences set forth in this section has been employed. Here are two examples, the first two in the exercise set immediately following.(P1): [(R ꓦ ~ S) ⋅ ~ T] ꓦ [(R ꓦ ~ S) ⋅ U]∴
Use indirect proof to prove that the following statements are tautologies.(A ⊃ B) ꓦ (A ⊃ ~ B)
Translate each of the following into the logical notation of propositional functions and quantifiers, in each case using the abbreviations suggested and making each formula begin with a quantifier, not with a negation symbol.None but the brave deserve the fair. (Bx: x is brave; Dx: x deserves the
For each of the following arguments, it is possible to provide a formal proof of validity by validly inferring just three statements. Writing these out, carefully and accurately, will strengthen your command of the rules of inference, a needed preparation for the construction of proofs that are
For each of the following arguments, inferring just two statements from the premises will produce a formal proof of its validity. Construct a formal proof for each of these arguments.In these formal proofs, and in all the proofs to follow in later sections, note to the right of each inferred
For the following statements, if there are forced truth-value assignments, make them. If there are no forced truth-value assignments, determine, using Maxim V, the requisite truth-value combinations on which, and the number of ways that, the statement can be true (or false), as the case requires.(B
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of validity or prove invalidity by means of the STTT. In each case, use the notation in parentheses.If I buy a new car this spring or have my old car fixed, then I’ll get up to Canada this summer and stop off in Duluth. I’ll visit my
Here follows a set of twenty elementary valid arguments. They are valid because each of them is exactly in the form of one of the nine elementary valid argument forms. For each of them, state the rule of inference by which its conclusion follows from its premise or premises.(P1): ~ [L ⊃ (M ⊃
Use Conditional Proof (C.P.) to prove that the following statements are tautologies.~~ R ⊃ R
The following set of arguments involves, in each case, one inference only, in which one of the ten logical equivalences set forth in this section has been employed. Here are two examples, the first two in the exercise set immediately following.(P1): [(~ O ꓦ P) ꓦ ~ Q] ⋅ [~ O ꓦ (P ꓦ ~
Translate each of the following into the logical notation of propositional functions and quantifiers, in each case using the abbreviations suggested and making each formula begin with a quantifier, not with a negation symbol.All that glitters is not gold. (Gx: x glitters; Ax: x is gold.)
For each of the following arguments, it is possible to provide a formal proof of validity by validly inferring just three statements. Writing these out, carefully and accurately, will strengthen your command of the rules of inference, a needed preparation for the construction of proofs that are
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of validity or prove invalidity by means of the STTT. In each case, use the notation in parentheses.If God were willing to prevent evil, but unable to do so, he would be impotent; if he were able to prevent evil, but unwilling to do so, he
For each of the following arguments, inferring just two statements from the premises will produce a formal proof of its validity. Construct a formal proof for each of these arguments.In these formal proofs, and in all the proofs to follow in later sections, note to the right of each inferred
For the following statements, if there are forced truth-value assignments, make them. If there are no forced truth-value assignments, determine, using Maxim V, the requisite truth-value combinations on which, and the number of ways that, the statement can be true (or false), as the case requires.D
Here follows a set of twenty elementary valid arguments. They are valid because each of them is exactly in the form of one of the nine elementary valid argument forms. For each of them, state the rule of inference by which its conclusion follows from its premise or premises.(P1): (C ꓦ D) ⊃ [(J
The following set of arguments involves, in each case, one inference only, in which one of the ten logical equivalences set forth in this section has been employed. Here are two examples, the first two in the exercise set immediately following.(P1): (~ K ⊃ L) ⊃ (~ M ꓦ ~ N)∴ (~ K ⊃ L) ⊃
Use Conditional Proof (C.P.) to prove that the following statements are tautologies.(M ⊃ N) ⊃ (~ N ⊃ ~ M)
Translate each of the following into the logical notation of propositional functions and quantifiers, in each case using the abbreviations suggested and making each formula begin with a quantifier, not with a negation symbol.Not all children pointed their fingers at the emperor. (Cx: x is a child;
For each of the following two arguments, construct an indirect proof of validity.If precipitation levels remain unchanged and global warming intensifies, ocean levels will rise and some ocean ports will be inundated. But ocean ports will not be inundated if global warming intensifies. Therefore
For each of the following arguments, it is possible to provide a formal proof of validity by validly inferring just three statements. Writing these out, carefully and accurately, will strengthen your command of the rules of inference, a needed preparation for the construction of proofs that are
For each of the following arguments, inferring just two statements from the premises will produce a formal proof of its validity. Construct a formal proof for each of these arguments.In these formal proofs, and in all the proofs to follow in later sections, note to the right of each inferred
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of validity or prove invalidity by means of the STTT. In each case, use the notation in parentheses.If there are the ordinary symptoms of a cold and the patient has a high temperature, then if there are tiny spots on his skin, he has
For the following statements, if there are forced truth-value assignments, make them. If there are no forced truth-value assignments, determine, using Maxim V, the requisite truth-value combinations on which, and the number of ways that, the statement can be true (or false), as the case requires.A
Here follows a set of twenty elementary valid arguments. They are valid because each of them is exactly in the form of one of the nine elementary valid argument forms. For each of them, state the rule of inference by which its conclusion follows from its premise or premises.(P1): [E ⊃ (F ≡ ~
Use Conditional Proof (C.P.) to prove that the following statements are tautologies.[D ⊃ (F ⊃ G)] ⊃[F ⊃ (D ⊃ G)]
The following set of arguments involves, in each case, one inference only, in which one of the ten logical equivalences set forth in this section has been employed. Here are two examples, the first two in the exercise set immediately following.(P1): (H ⊃ ~ I) ⊃ (~ I ⊃ ~ J)∴ (H ⊃ ~ I) ⊃
For each of the following arguments, construct an indirect proof of validity. (P₁): (NVF) (C.D) (P₂): DDV (P₂): VOI (P): IDA (P): AD ~C ~
Translate each of the following into the logical notation of propositional functions and quantifiers, in each case using the abbreviations suggested and making each formula begin with a quantifier, not with a negation symbol.A child pointed his finger at the emperor. (Cx: x is a child; Px: x
For each of the following arguments, it is possible to provide a formal proof of validity by validly inferring just three statements. Writing these out, carefully and accurately, will strengthen your command of the rules of inference, a needed preparation for the construction of proofs that are
For each of the following two arguments, construct an indirect proof of validity.If a sharp fall in the prime rate of interest produces a rally in the stock market, then inflation is sure to come soon. But if a drop in the money supply produces a sharp fall in the prime rate of interest, then early
For each of the following arguments, inferring just two statements from the premises will produce a formal proof of its validity. Construct a formal proof for each of these arguments. In these formal proofs, and in all the proofs to follow in later sections, note to the right of each inferred
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of validity or prove invalidity by means of the STTT. In each case, use the notation in parentheses.If the linguistics investigators are correct, then if more than one dialect was present in ancient Greece, then different tribes came down
For the following statements, if there are forced truth-value assignments, make them. If there are no forced truth-value assignments, determine, using Maxim V, the requisite truth-value combinations on which, and the number of ways that, the statement can be true (or false), as the case requires.~
Here follows a set of twenty elementary valid arguments. They are valid because each of them is exactly in the form of one of the nine elementary valid argument forms. For each of them, state the rule of inference by which its conclusion follows from its premise or premises.(P1): (A ⊃ B) ⊃
The following set of arguments involves, in each case, one inference only, in which one of the ten logical equivalences set forth in this section has been employed. Here are two examples, the first two in the exercise set immediately following.(P1): (~ F ꓦ G) ⋅ (F ⊃ G)∴ (F ⊃ G) ⋅ (F ⊃
Translate each of the following into the logical notation of propositional functions and quantifiers, in each case using the abbreviations suggested and making each formula begin with a quantifier, not with a negation symbol.The common cold is never fatal. (Cx: x is a common cold; Fx: x is fatal.)
For each of the following arguments, construct an indirect proof of validity. (P₁): RD-M (P₂): RD (~M~S) (P₂):~MD (~S~G) :. RD-G
For each of the following arguments, it is possible to provide a formal proof of validity by validly inferring just three statements. Writing these out, carefully and accurately, will strengthen your command of the rules of inference, a needed preparation for the construction of proofs that are

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Introduction To Logic 15th Edition Irving M. Copi, Carl Cohen, Victor Rodych - Solutions

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