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social science
introduction to logic

Introduction To Logic 15th Edition Irving M. Copi, Carl Cohen, Victor Rodych - Solutions

Analyze each of the following investigations, or arguments, and indicate which of the methods of causal reasoning—Mill’s methods—are being used in each of them:The impulse to share does not come naturally to one who is thinking about money. Psychologists found that subconscious reminders of
Analyze each of the following arguments in terms of “antecedents” and “phenomena” to show how they follow the pattern of the method of residues:At a social gathering of eighty-five faculty members, graduate students, and staff workers in the Department of Food Science at the University of
Analyze each of the following arguments in terms of “antecedents” and “phenomena” to show how they follow the pattern of the method of residues:For nineteen years space scientists, astronomers, and physicists have been puzzled by what appears to be a mysterious force pulling spacecraft in
Analyze each of the following arguments in terms of “antecedents” and “phenomena” to show how they follow the pattern of the method of residues:In H. Davies’ experiments on the decomposition of water by galvanism, it was found hat besides the two components of water, oxygen and hydrogen,
Analyze each of the following arguments in terms of “antecedents” and “phenomena” to show how they follow the pattern of the method of residues:Satellite observations collected between 1992 and 2001 suggest that the upper surface of the Larsen C ice shelf, in Antarctica, dropped as much as
Do the same (as in Set C) for each of the following:Figs and grapes are healthful. Nothing healthful is either illaudable or jejune. Some grapes are jejune and knurly. Some fi gs are not knurly. Therefore some figs are illaudable. (Fx: x is a fig; Gx: x is a grape; Hx: x is healthful; Ix: x is
Analyze each of the following arguments in terms of “antecedents” and “phenomena” to show how they follow the pattern of the method of residues:Analyzing more than forty years of weather data, climatologists at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in Boulder, Colorado,
Analyze each of the following arguments in terms of the variation of the “phenomena” to show how they follow the pattern of the method of concomitant variation:The notion that poverty and mental illness are intertwined is not new—but finding evidence that one begets the other has often proved
Analyze each of the following arguments in terms of the variation of the “phenomena” to show how they follow the pattern of the method of concomitant variation:The notion that poverty and mental illness are intertwined is not new—but finding evidence that one begets the other has often proved
Analyze each of the following arguments in terms of the variation of the “phenomena” to show how they follow the pattern of the method of concomitant variation:In Finland, heart attacks occur more frequently in the eastern part of the country than in the western and southern parts. Researchers
Construct a formal proof of validity for each of the following arguments: (P₁): (x)(VxWx) (P₂): (x)(WxD-XX) .. (x)(Xx Ɔ- Vx)
Analyze each of the following arguments in terms of the variation of the “phenomena” to show how they follow the pattern of the method of concomitant variation:When it comes to love, sex, and friendship, do birds of a feather flock together? Or is it more important that opposites attract? Dr.
Construct a formal proof of validity for each of the following arguments: (P₁): (x)(Sx-Tx) (P₂): (3x)(Sx-Ux) .. (3x) (Ux - Tx)
Analyze each of the following arguments in terms of the variation of the “phenomena” to show how they follow the pattern of the method of concomitant variation:Stanley Coren sought to plumb the connections between sleeplessness and accidents. To do that he focused on the yearly shift to
Prove the invalidity of the following: (P₁): (x)(Sx-Tx) (P₂): (x) (TxUx) :. (3x) (Ux. - Sx)
Prove the invalidity of the following: (P₁):(x)(VxWx) (P₂): (3x)(Wx~ Xx) .. (3x) (Xx. - Vx)
Analyze each of the following arguments in terms of the variation of the “phenomena” to show how they follow the pattern of the method of concomitant variation:Prof. Kathleen Vohs reports that two groups of college students were asked to read out loud from “a boring book on the biographies of
Analyze each of the following arguments in terms of the variation of the “phenomena” to show how they follow the pattern of the method of concomitant variation:Potassium in the urine is known to reflect potassium intake from the diet. At the Prosserman Center for Health Research in Toronto, Dr.
Analyze each of the following arguments in terms of the variation of the “phenomena” to show how they follow the pattern of the method of concomitant variation:Whenever the U.S. says things that make a military conflict with Iran seem more likely, the price of oil rises, strengthening Iran’s
Translate the following statements into logical symbolism, in each case using the abbreviations suggested:Not all people who are wealthy are both educated and cultured. (Px, Wx, Ex, Cx)
Construct a formal proof of validity for each of the following arguments: (P₁): (x)(Bx-Cx) (P₂): (3x)(Cx. Dx) :. (3x) (Dx~ Bx)
Translate the following statements into logical symbolism, in each case using the abbreviations suggested:Not all tools that are cheap are either soft or breakable. (Tx, Cx, Sx, Bx)
Construct a formal proof of validity for each of the following arguments: (P₁): (x)(Bx-Cx) (P₂): (3x)(Cx. Dx) .. (3x) (DxBx)
Prove the invalidity of the following: (P₁): (Ex) (YxZx) (P₂): (Ex) (Ax Zx) .. (3x) (AxYx)
Prove the invalidity of the following: (P₁): (Ex) (BxCx) (P₂): (x)(Dx - Cx) .. (x) (Dx Bx)
Translate the following statements into logical symbolism, in each case using the abbreviations suggested:Any person is a coward who deserts. (Px, Cx, Dx)
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of validity or prove it invalid. If it is to be proved invalid, a model containing as many as three elements may be required. . (P₁): (x) [(Ax V Bx) Ɔ (Cx · Dx)] :. (x) (Bx Ɔ Cx)
Translate the following statements into logical symbolism, in each case using the abbreviations suggested:To achieve success, one must work hard if one goes into business, or study continuously if one enters a profession. ( Ax: x achieves success; Wx: x works hard; Bx: x goes into business; Sx: x
Construct a formal proof of validity for each of the following arguments, in each case using the suggested notations:No athletes are bookworms. Carol is a bookworm. Therefore Carol is not an athlete. (Ax, Bx, c)
Translate the following statements into logical symbolism, in each case using the abbreviations suggested:An old European joke goes like this: In America, everything is permitted that is not forbidden. In Germany, everything is forbidden that is not permitted. In France, everything is permitted
Prove the invalidity of the following, in each case using the suggested notation:No diplomats are extremists. Some fanatics are extremists. Therefore some diplomats are not fanatics. (Dx, Ex, Fx)
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of validity or prove it invalid. If it is to be proved invalid, a model containing as many as three elements may be required. (P₁): (3x){(Ex · Fx) · [(Ex V Fx) Ɔ (Gx · Hx)]} . . .. (x)(ExHx)
Construct a formal proof of validity for each of the following arguments, in each case using the suggested notations:All dancers are exuberant. Some fencers are not exuberant. Therefore some fencers are not dancers. (Dx, Ex, Fx)
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of validity or prove it invalid. If it is to be proved invalid, a model containing as many as three elements may be required. (P₁): (x){(Ix (JxKx)] [Jx (Ix Kx)]} (P₂): (3x) [(Ix Jx) - Lx] :. (3x)(Kx. Lx)
Prove the invalidity of the following, in each case using the suggested notation:All generals are handsome. Some intellectuals are handsome. Therefore some generals are intellectuals. (Gx, Hx, Ix)
Construct a formal proof of validity for each of the following arguments, in each case using the suggested notations:No gamblers are happy. Some idealists are happy. Therefore some idealists are not gamblers. (Gx, Hx, Ix)
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of validity or prove it invalid. If it is to be proved invalid, a model containing as many as three elements may be required. (P₁): (3x)(Sx. Tx) (P₂): (Ex) (UxSx) (P3): (3x)(Vx Tx) .. (3x) (Ux. Vx)
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of validity or prove it invalid. If it is to be proved invalid, a model containing as many as three elements may be required. (Ox V Px) (QxV Rx)] (P₁): (x)[(MxNx) (P₂): (x)[(OxPx) . (x)[(Mx V Ox) > Rx]
Prove the invalidity of the following, in each case using the suggested notation:Some journalists are not kibitzers. Some kibitzers are not lucky. Therefore some journalists are not lucky. (Jx, Kx, Lx)
Construct a formal proof of validity for each of the following arguments, in each case using the suggested notations:All jesters are knaves. No knaves are lucky. Therefore no jesters are lucky. (Jx, Kx, Lx)
Prove the invalidity of the following, in each case using the suggested notation:Some malcontents are noisy. Some officials are not noisy. Therefore no officials are malcontents. (Mx, Nx, Ox)
Construct a formal proof of validity for each of the following arguments, in each case using the suggested notations:All mountaineers are neighborly. Some outlaws are mountaineers. Therefore some outlaws are neighborly. (Mx, Nx, Ox)
Prove the invalidity of the following, in each case using the suggested notation:Some physicians are quacks. Some quacks are not responsible. Therefore some physicians are not responsible. (Px, Qx, Rx)
Construct a formal proof of validity for each of the following arguments, in each case using the suggested notations:Only pacifists are Quakers. There are religious Quakers. Therefore pacifists are sometimes religious. (Px, Qx, Rx)
Prove the invalidity of the following, in each case using the suggested notation:Some politicians are leaders. Some leaders are not orators. Therefore some orators are not politicians. (Px, Lx, Ox)
Construct a formal proof of validity for each of the following arguments, in each case using the suggested notations:To be a swindler is to be a thief. None but the underprivileged are thieves. Therefore swindlers are always underprivileged. (Sx, Tx, Ux)
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of validity or prove it invalid. If it is to be proved invalid, a model containing as many as three elements may be required. (P₁): (x)[Wx (XxYx)] (P₂): (3x)[Xx (Zx . ~ Ax)] (P₂): (x) [WxYx) (Bx Ax)] (3x) (Zx Bx)
Prove the invalidity of the following, in each case using the suggested notation:None but the brave deserve the fair. Every soldier is brave. Therefore none but soldiers deserve the fair. (Dx: x deserves the fair; Bx: x is brave; Sx: x is a soldier)
Construct a formal proof of validity for each of the following arguments, in each case using the suggested notations:No violinists are not wealthy. There are no wealthy xylophonists. Therefore violinists are never xylophonists. (Vx, Wx, Xx)
Each of the following is intended to be a refutation by logical analogy. Identify the argument being refuted in each and the refuting analogy, and decide whether they do indeed have the same argument form.Edward Rothstein suggests that poverty and injustice cannot be considered among the root
Analyze the structure of the analogical arguments in the following passages, and evaluate them in terms of the six criteria that have been explained:If you cut up a large diamond into little bits, it will entirely lose the value it had as a whole; as an army divided up into small bodies of soldiers
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of validity or prove it invalid. If it is to be proved invalid, a model containing as many as three elements may be required. (P₁): (3x) [Cx- (Dx Ex)] (P₂): (x)[(CxDx) > Fx] (P₂): (3x) [Ex- (Dx (P): (x)(GxD Cx) (3x) (Gx Fx) ~ Cx)]
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of validity or prove it invalid. If it is to be proved invalid, a model containing as many as three elements may be required. (P₁): (x){(Lx V Mx) (P₂): (Ex) (Mx Lx) 2 (P3): (x) {[(Ox (P): (3x) (Lx Mx) :. (3x)(Nx Rx) 7 {[(Nx Ox)V Px]
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of validity or prove it invalid. If it is to be proved invalid, a model containing as many as three elements may be required. (P₁): (x) (HxIx)] (P₂): (x)[(HxIx) > Jx] (P3): (x)[- Kx (Hx V Ix)] (P₂): (x)[(x V- Jx) (IxHx)] :: (x)(Jx V
Prove the invalidity of the following, in each case using the suggested notation:If anything is metallic, then it is breakable. There are breakable ornaments. Therefore there are metallic ornaments. (Mx, Bx, Ox)
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of validity or prove it invalid. If it is to be proved invalid, a model containing as many as three elements may be required. (P₁): (x)[(Sx V Tx) - (Ux V Vx)] (P₂): (Ex) (SxWx) (P₂): (Ex) (Tx~ Xx) (P): (x)(- WxXx) .. (3x) (Ux. - Vx)
Construct a formal proof of validity for each of the following arguments, in each case using the suggested notations:None but the brave deserve the fair. Only soldiers are brave. Therefore the fair are deserved only by soldiers. (Dx: x deserves the fair; Bx: x is brave; Sx : x is a soldier)
Prove the invalidity of the following, in each case using the suggested notation:Only students are members. Only members are welcome. Therefore all students are welcome. (Sx, Mx, Wx)
Construct a formal proof of validity for each of the following arguments, in each case using the suggested notations:Everyone that asketh receiveth. Simon receiveth not. Therefore Simon asketh not. (Ax, Rx, s)
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of its validity or prove it invalid, in each case using the suggested notation:Acids and bases are chemicals. Vinegar is an acid. Therefore vinegar is a chemical. (Ax , Bx , Cx , Vx)
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of its validity or prove it invalid, in each case using the suggested notation:Teachers are either enthusiastic or unsuccessful. Teachers are not all unsuccessful. Therefore there are enthusiastic teachers. (Tx , Ex , Ux)
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of its validity or prove it invalid, in each case using the suggested notation:Argon compounds and sodium compounds are either oily or volatile. Not all sodium compounds are oily. Therefore some argon compounds are volatile. (Ax , Sx , Ox ,
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of its validity or prove it invalid, in each case using the suggested notation:No employee who is either slovenly or discourteous can be promoted. Therefore no discourteous employee can be promoted. (Ex , Sx , Dx , Px)
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of its validity or prove it invalid, in each case using the suggested notation:No employer who is either inconsiderate or tyrannical can be successful. Some employers are inconsiderate. There are tyrannical employers. Therefore no employer
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of its validity or prove it invalid, in each case using the suggested notation:There is nothing made of gold that is not expensive. No weapons are made of silver. Not all weapons are expensive. Therefore not everything is made of gold or
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of its validity or prove it invalid, in each case using the suggested notation:There is nothing made of tin that is not cheap. No rings are made of lead. Not everything is either tin or lead. Therefore not all rings are cheap. (Tx , Cx , Rx
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of its validity or prove it invalid, in each case using the suggested notation:Some prize fighters are aggressive but not intelligent. All prize fi ghters wear gloves. Prize fighters are not all aggressive. Any slugger is aggressive.
For each of the following, either construct a formal proof of its validity or prove it invalid, in each case using the suggested notation:Some photographers are skillful but not imaginative. Only artists are photographers. Photographers are not all skillful. Any journeyman is skillful. Therefore
All of the following passages contain analogies. Distinguish those passages that contain analogical arguments from those that make nonargumentative uses of analogy.A Man ought no more to value himself for being wiser than a Woman, if he owes his Advantage to a better Education, than he ought to
An investor has purchased one hundred shares of oil stock every December for the past five years. In every case the value of the stock has appreciated by about 15 percent a year, and it has paid regular dividends of about 8 percent a year on the price at which she bought it. This December she
Each of the following is intended to be a refutation by logical analogy. Identify the argument being refuted in each and the refuting analogy, and decide whether they do indeed have the same argument form.Steve Brill, founder of Court TV, has no doubt that cameras belong in the courtroom, and
Each of the following is intended to be a refutation by logical analogy. Identify the argument being refuted in each and the refuting analogy, and decide whether they do indeed have the same argument form.The whole history of bolshevism, both before and after the October revolution, is full of
A faithful alumnus, heartened by State’s winning its last four football games, decides to bet his money that State will win its next game, too.a. Suppose that since the last game, State’s outstanding quarterback was injured in practice and hospitalized for the remainder of the season.b. Suppose
Instead of investing in the future, we throw money away on absurd luxuries, finance corrupt and hostile oil-rich countries, pollute our atmosphere and increase our trade deficit. Sort of like driving a Hummer to the shopping mall.—Eric Buckvar, “A Wasteful Society,” The NewYork Times , 23
Each of the following is intended to be a refutation by logical analogy. Identify the argument being refuted in each and the refuting analogy, and decide whether they do indeed have the same argument form.The distinguished naturalist E. O. Wilson argues that humans are no more than a biological
Although she was bored by the last few foreign films she saw, Charlene agrees to go to see another one this evening, fully expecting to be bored again.a. Suppose that Charlene also was bored by the last few American movies she saw.b. Suppose that the star of this evening’s film has recently been
The British are less rigid about punctuation and related matters, such as footnote and bibliographic form, than Americans are. An Englishwoman lecturing Americans on semicolons is a little like an American lecturing the French on sauces.—Louis Menand, “Bad Comma,” The New Yorker , 28 June 2004
Each of the following is intended to be a refutation by logical analogy. Identify the argument being refuted in each and the refuting analogy, and decide whether they do indeed have the same argument form.The argument against new highways is given forceful statement by three distinguished urban
Bill has taken three history courses and found them very stimulating and valuable, so he signs up for another one, confi dently expecting that it too will be worthwhile.a. Suppose that his previous history courses were in ancient history, modern European history, and U.S. history.b. Suppose that
Studies show that girls get better grades in high school and college than boys—yet only about 35 percent of National Merit Scholarship winners are girls. The Executive Director of Fair Test contends that the “inequity is due solely to gender bias in the test used to select eligible students.”
Each of the following is intended to be a refutation by logical analogy. Identify the argument being refuted in each and the refuting analogy, and decide whether they do indeed have the same argument form.America’s supply of timber has been increasing for decades, and the nation’s forests have
Dr. Brown has stayed at the Queen’s Hotel every fall for the past six years on her annual visit to New York, and she has been quite satisfied with her accommodations there. On her visit to New York this fall, Dr. Brown goes again to the Queen’s Hotel, confidently expecting to enjoy her stay
The famous chemist and biologist Justus von Liebig dismissed the germ theory with a shrug of the shoulders, regarding Pasteur’s view that microbes could cause fermentation as ridiculous and naive as the opinion of a child “who would explain the rapidity of the Rhine current by attributing it to
Each of the following is intended to be a refutation by logical analogy. Identify the argument being refuted in each and the refuting analogy, and decide whether they do indeed have the same argument form.In 1996, heated controversy arose between the states of New Jersey and New York over formal
Talking about Christianity without saying anything about sin is like discussing gardening without saying anything about weeds.—The Rev. Lord Soper, quoted in The New York Times , 24 December 1998
Analyze the structure of the analogical arguments in the following passages, and evaluate them in terms of the six criteria that have been explained:It would be the height of hypocrisy if Pete Rose, one of baseball’s star players, were allowed back into baseball and elected to the Hall of Fame
Men and women may have different reproductive strategies, but neither can be considered inferior or superior to the other, any more than a bird’s wings can be considered superior or inferior to a fish’s fins.—David M. Buss, “Where Is Fancy Bred? In the Genes or in the Head?” The New York
Analyze the structure of the analogical arguments in the following passages, and evaluate them in terms of the six criteria that have been explained:Look round the world: contemplate the whole and every part of it: you will fi nd it to be nothing but one great machine, subdivided into an infinite
Each of the following is intended to be a refutation by logical analogy. Identify the argument being refuted in each and the refuting analogy, and decide whether they do indeed have the same argument form.Each of the multitude of universes may have different laws of nature. Or different values of
“This is a matter of national spirit,” said Marjorie Wilson, coordinator of the Kangaroo Protection Cooperative, an Australian wildlife group. “We believe here that we have enough meat in this country to satisfy people without them having to eat their national symbol. You Americans don’t
Each of the following is intended to be a refutation by logical analogy. Identify the argument being refuted in each and the refuting analogy, and decide whether they do indeed have the same argument form.Artificial human minds will never be made (we are told) because “artificial intelligence
Analyze the structure of the analogical arguments in the following passages, and evaluate them in terms of the six criteria that have been explained:The philosopher Metrodorus of Chios, who lived in the fourth century BCE , was greatly interested in the heavenly bodies. He wrote: “To consider the
One sure thing is that melting sea ice cannot be implicated in the coastal flooding that many global warming models have projected. Just as melting ice cubes do not cause a glass of water to overflow, melting sea ice does not increase oceanic volume.Any future rise in sea level would result from
Each of the following is intended to be a refutation by logical analogy. Identify the argument being refuted in each and the refuting analogy, and decide whether they do indeed have the same argument form.Modern political rhetoric [Ronald Dworkin argues] “is now extremely repetitive,” and a
Analyze the structure of the analogical arguments in the following passages, and evaluate them in terms of the six criteria that have been explained:To the casual observer porpoises and sharks are kinds of fi sh. They are streamlined, good swimmers, and live in the sea. To the zoologist who
Thomas Henry Huxley, Charles Darwin’s nineteenth-century disciple, presented this analogy: “Consciousness would appear to be related to the mechanism of the body simply as a collateral product of its working and to be completely without any power of modifying that working, as the steam whistle
Analyze the structure of the analogical arguments in the following passages, and evaluate them in terms of the six criteria that have been explained:The body is the substance of the soul; the soul is the functioning of the body. . . .The relationship of the soul to its substance is like that of
The Elgin Marbles—17 fi gures and 56 panels that once decorated the Parthenon, on the Acropolis in Athens—were taken from the Parthenon in 1801 by Thomas Bruce, the seventh Earl of Elgin, and brought to the British Museum, in London. The Greeks say that he stole them; the British say that they
Analyze the structure of the analogical arguments in the following passages, and evaluate them in terms of the six criteria that have been explained:If a single cell, under appropriate conditions, becomes a person in the space of a few years, there can surely be no difficulty in understanding how,
The Feminists decided to examine the institution of marriage as it is set up by law in order to find out whether or not it did operate in women’s favor. It became increasingly clear to us that the institution of marriage “protects” women in the same way that the institution of slavery was

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