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chemical principles

Questions and Answers of Chemical Principles

Write the valence-shell electron configurations and bond orders of(a) O22–;(b) N2–;(c) C2–.
One of the following compounds does not exist. Use Lewis structures to identify that compound.(a) C2H2;(b) C2H4;(c) C2H6;(d) C2H8.
Acrylonitrile, CH2 CHCN, is used in the synthesis of acrylic fibers (polyacrylonitriles), such as Orlon. Draw the Lewis structure of acrylonitrile and describe the hybrid orbitals on each carbon
Anthracene has the formula C14 H10. It is similar to benzene but has three six-membered rings that share common C—C bonds, as shown below. Complete the structure by drawing in multiple bonds to
Draw the Lewis structure, VSEPR formula, molecular shape, and bond angles for each of the following species:(a) I3–;(b) POCl3;(c) IO3–;(d) N2O.
For each of the following ground-state atoms, predict the type of orbital (1s, 2p, 3d, 4f, etc.) from which an electron will need to be removed to form the +1 ions:(a) Zn;(b) Cl;(c) Al;(d) Cu.
Place the following molecules or ions in order of decreasing bond length:(a) The CO bond in CO, CO2, CO32–;(b) The SO bond in SO2 , SO3, SO32–;(c) The CN bond in HCN, CH2 NH, CH3 NH2. Explain
Give the valence-shell electron configurations and bond orders for CO and CO+. Use that information to predict which species has stronger bonds.
Given the information in Exercise 2F.21, plot a graph showing how the hybridization depends on the angle between two hybrids formed from an s-orbital and two p-orbitals, and confirm that it ranges
Draw the Lewis structure and predict the shape of(a) ClF5;(b) SbF5;(c) IO53–;(d) IO65-.
The antibonding orbital in Eq. 2 is not normalized (see Exercise 2G.21). Find the factor that normalizes it to 1, given that the individual atomic orbitals are each normalized. Express your answer in
Two Lewis structures are shown below for each species.Determine the formal charge on each atom and then, if appropriate, identify the Lewis structure of lower energy for each species. (a)
Which do you predict to have the strongest CN bond:(a) NHCH2,(b) NH2 CH3, or(c) HCN? Explain.
Which of the following species are paramagnetic:(a) N2–;(b) F2+;(c) O22+? If the species is paramagnetic, how many unpaired electrons does it possess?
Draw the most important Lewis structure for each of the following molecules. Show all lone pairs and formal charges. Draw all equivalent resonance forms:(a) HONCO;(b) H2 CSO;(c) H2 CNN;(d) ONCN.
Draw the Lewis structures that contribute to the resonance hybrid of the guanadinium ion, C(NH2)3+.
Draw the Lewis structure, VSEPR formula, molecular shape, and bond angles for each of the following species:(a) SiCl4;(b) PF5;(c) SBr2;(d) ICl2+.
For each of the following ground-state ions, predict the type of orbital (1s, 2p, 3d, 4f, etc.) from which an electron will need to be removed to form the ions of one greater positive
In each of these compounds, an atom violates the octet rule. Identify the atom and explain the deviation from the octet rule:(a) SF6;(b) BH3.
(a) Explore whether the lattice energies of the alkali metal iodides are inversely proportional to the distances between the centers of the ions in MI (M = alkali metal) by plotting the lattice
Place the following molecules or ions in order of decreasing bond order:(a) NO bond in NO, NO2, NO3–;(b) CC bond in C2H2 , C2H4, C2H6;(c) CO bond in CH3OH, CH2O, CH3 OCH3. Explain your
Two contributions to the resonance structure are shown below for each species. Determine the formal charge on each atom and then, if possible, identify the Lewis structure of lower energy for each
Give the valence-shell electron configurations and bond orders for NO and NO+. Use that information to predict which species has stronger bonds.
Determine the formal charges of the atoms in(a) BeCl2;(b) H2NOH;(c) NO2–.
(a) Confirm that lattice energies are inversely proportional to the distance between the centers of the ions in MX (M = alkali metal, X = halide ion) by plotting the lattice energies of KF, KCl, and
Write the most likely charge for the ions formed by each of the following elements:(a) S;(b) Te;(c) Rb;(d) Ga;(e) Cd.
Which do you predict to have the strongest CX bond, where X is a halogen:(a) CF4,(b) CCl4, or(c) CBr4? Explain.
Which of the following species are paramagnetic:(a) B2;(b) B2–;(c) B2+? If the species is paramagnetic, how many unpaired electrons does it possess?
Draw the Lewis structures that contribute to the resonance hybrid of chloric acid, HClO2 (Cl is the central atom and the H is attached to one of the O atoms).
Both NH2– and NH2+ are angular species, but the bond angle in NH2– is less than that in NH2+.(a) What is the reason for this difference in bond angles?(b) Take the x -axis as lying
Draw the Lewis structure and the VSEPR formula, list the shape, and predict the approximate bond angles of(a) PCl3F2;(b) SnF4;(c) SnF62-;(d) IF5;(e) XeO4.
Use the information in Fig. 2D.11 to estimate the length of(a) The CO bond in CO2;(b) The CO and CN bonds in urea, OC(NH2)2;(c) The OCl bond in HClO;(d) The NCl bond in NOCl. CO B Bond length 3
Write the most likely charge for the ions formed by each of the following elements:(a) Cs;(b) O;(c) Ca;(d) N;(e) I.
A common biologically active radical is the pentadienyl radical, RCHCHCHCHCHR′, where the carbons form a chain, with R and R′, which can be a number of different organic groups, at each end. Draw
Determine the bond orders and use them to predict which species of each of the following pairs has the stronger bond:(a) F2 or F2–;(b) B2 or B2+.
Predict the qualitative molecular potential energy curves for the NN bond by making sketches on one graph for N2 H4, N2, and N3–. Explain why the energy of the lowest point on each curve is not the
In the ion Se42+, the selenium atoms form a square. Draw two resonance structures for Se42+.
Describe the structure of the formamide molecule, HCONH2, in terms of hybrid orbitals, bond angles, and σ - and π -bonds. The C atom is bonded to one H atom, a terminal O atom, and the N atom. The
Predict the bond angles at the central atom of the following molecules and ions:(a) OF2;(b) ClO2–;(c) NO2–;(d) SeCl2.
Select from each of the following pairs of Lewis structures the one that is likely to make the dominant contribution to a resonance hybrid. Explain your selection. (a) N=N=0
Predict the number of valence electrons present for each of the following ions:(a) In+;(b) Tc2+;(c) Ta2+;(d) Re+.
Use the information in Fig. 2D.11 to estimate the length of(a) The CO bond in formaldehyde, H2CO;(b) The CO bond in dimethyl ether, CH3OCH3;(c) The CO bond in methanol, CH3OH;(d) The CS bond in
Thallium and oxygen form two compounds with the following characteristics:Determine the chemical formulas of the two compounds.(b) Determine the oxidation number of thallium in each
Determine the bond orders and use them to predict which species of each of the following pairs has the stronger bond:(a) C2 or C2–;(b) N2 or N2–.
How close are the Mulliken and Pauling electronegativity scales?(a) Use Eq. 2 in Topic 2D to calculate the Mulliken electronegativities of C, N, O, and F. Use the values in kilojoules per mole from
Draw the Lewis structure and determine the formal charge on each atom in(a) NO+;(b) N2;(c) CO;(d) C22¯;(e) CN¯.
Predict the shapes and estimate the bond angles of(a) The thiosulfate ion, S2O32–;(b) (CH3)2Be;(c) BH2–;(d) SnCl2.
Use the covalent radii in Fig. 2D.11 to calculate the bond lengths in the following molecules. Account for the trends in your calculated values:(a) CF4;(b) SiF4;(c) SnF4. CO B Bond length 3
Give the ground-state electron configuration and number of unpaired electrons expected for each of the following ions:(a) Sb3+;(b) Sn4+;(c) W2+;(d) Br+;(e) Ni2+.
Based on their valence-shell electron configurations, which of the following species would you expect to have the lowest ionization energy:(a) C2+;(b) C2;(c) C2–?
Using only Lewis structures that obey the octet rule, draw the Lewis structures and determine the formal charge on each atom in(a) SO2;(b) SO3;(c) SO32–.
The hybrid orbital h1 = s + px + py + pz referred to in Exercise 2F.19 is not normalized. Find the normalization factor N , given that all the atomic orbitals are normalized to 1. A wavefunction ψ
For each of the following molecules or ions, draw the Lewis structure, list the number of lone pairs on the central atom, identify the shape, and estimate the bond
Use the covalent radii in Fig. 2D.11 to calculate the lengths of the bonds between nitrogen atoms in the following molecules.Account for the trends in your calculated values:(a) Hydrazine,
Give the ground-state electron configuration and number of unpaired electrons expected for each of the following ions:(a) Sc3+;(b) Co2+;(c) Sr2+;(d) Se2-.
Based on their valence-shell electron configurations, which of the following species would you expect to have the greatest electron affinity:(a) Be2;(b) F2;(c) B2+,(d) C2+?
The perchlorate ion, ClO4–, is described by resonance structures.(a) Draw the Lewis structures that contribute to the resonance hybrid and identify the most plausible Lewis structures by using
Hypochlorous acid, HClO, is found in white blood cells, where it helps to destroy bacteria. Draw two Lewis structures with different atom arrangements for HClO and select the most likely structure by
Draw the Lewis structure and give the approximate bond angles of(a) C2H4;(b) ClCN;(c) OPCl3;(d) N2H4.
In the solid state, sulfur is commonly found in rings of eight atoms, but rings consisting of six atoms of sulfur were identified in 1958.(a) Draw a valid Lewis structure for S6.(b) Is resonance
Nitrosyl fluoride, NOF, is an oxidizing agent used as a rocket fuel. Draw three Lewis structures with different atom arrangements for NOF and select the most likely structure by identifying the
Give the ground-state electron configuration and number of unpaired electrons expected for each of the following ions:(a) Fe3+;(b) Bi3+;(c) Si4+;(d) I2.
Determine the formal charge on each atom in the following molecules. Identify the structure of lower energy in each pair. (a) ö=ä-ö: || | :0: H (b) Ö=c=S (c)
Structural isomers are molecules that have the same composition but a different pattern of connectivity. Two isomers of disulfur difluoride, S2 F2, are known. In each, the two S atoms are bonded to
Draw the Lewis structure and predict the shape of(a) OSbCl3;(b) SO2Cl2;(c) IO2F2–. The atom in boldface red type is the central atom.
On the basis of the expected charges on the monatomic ions, give the chemical formula of each of the following compounds:(a) Magnesium arsenide;(b) Indium(III) sulfide;(c) Aluminum
Ionic compounds typically have higher boiling points and lower vapor pressures than covalent compounds. Predict which compound in the following pairs has the lower vapor pressure at room
Determine the formal charge on each atom in the following ions. Identify the structure of lowest energy in each case. (a) N=c= -Ö: (9) (c) :Ö: 0: :0: 7- :Ö: :N=C- :O: As :0: :ö:
Give the ground-state electron configuration and number of unpaired electrons expected for each of the following ions:(a) Ca2+;(b) In+;(c) Te2-;(d) Ag+.
It is usually convenient to deal with wavefunctions that are “normalized,” which means that the integral ∫ψ2 dτ = 1. The bonding orbital in Eq. 1 is not normalized. A wavefunction ψ can be
Predict whether each of the following molecules is likely to be polar or nonpolar:(a) CH3SH (methanethiol, found in breath odor and skunks);(b) CH3NH2 (methylamine, a drug precursor);(c) CH3OCH3
Predict which of the following pairs of ions would have the greatest coulombic attraction in a solid compound:(a) Mg2+, S2+;(b) Mg2+, Se2+;(c) Mg2+, O2+.
There are three isomers of dichlorobenzene, C6H4Cl2, which differ in the relative positions of the chlorine atoms on the benzene ring.(a) Which of the three forms are polar?(b) Which has the
An organic compound distilled from wood was found to have a molar mass of 32.04 g · mol–1 and the following composition by mass: 37.5% C, 12.6% H, and 49.9% O.(a) Write the Lewis structure of the
Explain why the lattice energy of lithium chloride (861 kJ · mol-1) is greater than that of rubidium chloride (695 kJ · mol-1), given that they have similar arrangements of ions in the crystal
There are three isomers of difluoroethene, C2H2F2, which differ in the locations of the fluorine atoms.(a) Which of the forms are polar?(b) Which has the largest dipole moment? F F C= 1 C O H F H
Draw Lewis structures for each of the following species and predict the hybridization at each carbon atom:(a) H2CCH–;(b) H2CCH3+;(c) H3CCH2–.
Explain why the lattice energy of silver bromide (903 kJ · mol-1) is greater than that of silver iodide (887 kJ · mol-1, given that they have similar arrangements of ions in the crystal lattice.
(a) Draw the bonding and antibonding orbitals that correspond to the σ-bond in H2.(b) Repeat this procedure for HF.(c) How do these orbitals differ?
(a) Consider the hypothetical species HeH. What charge (magnitude and sign), if any, should be present on this combination of atoms to produce the most stable molecule or ion possible?(b) What is
(a) Order the following molecules according to increasing C—F bond length: CF+ , CF, CF–.(b) Which of these species is diamagnetic, if any? Explain your reasoning.
The two atomic orbitals that contribute to the antibonding orbital in Eq. 2 in Topic 2G are each proportional to e–r/a0, where r is the distance of the point from its parent nucleus. Confirm that
Describe as completely as you can the structure and bonding in a carbamate ion, H2 NCO2–. The C—O bond lengths are both 128 pm, and the C—N bond length is 136 pm.
Given that carbon has a valence of 4 in nearly all its compounds and can form chains and rings of C atoms,(a) Draw any two of the three possible structures for C3H4;(b) Determine all bond angles in
Show that a molecule with configuration π4 has a cylindrically symmetrical electron distribution. Take the π-orbitals to be equal to xf and yf, where f is a function that depends only on distance
In addition to forming σ- and π-types of bonds similar to the way that neighboring p-orbitals overlap, neighboring d-orbitals may overlap to form δ -bonds.(a) Draw overlap diagrams showing three
Borazine, B3N3H6, a compound that has been called “inorganic benzene” because of its similar hexagonal structure (but with alternating B and N atoms in place of C atoms), is the basis of a large
An s-orbital and a p-orbital on neighboring atoms are being considered as contributing to bond formation in a molecule. Draw diagrams to show how one combination can contribute to σ -bonding but
(a) Describe the changes in bonding that would occur in benzene if two electrons were removed from the HOMO (highest occupied molecular orbital). This removal would correspond to an oxidation of
(a) Use trigonometry to confirm that the dipoles of the three bonds in a trigonal pyrimidal AB3 molecule do not cancel, resulting in a polar molecule.(b) Show that the dipoles of the four bonds in
Benzyne, C6H4, is a highly reactive molecule that survives only at low temperatures. It is related to benzene in that it has a six-membered ring of carbon atoms; but, instead of three double bonds,
The Lewis structure of caffeine, C8H10N4O2, a common stimulant, is given below.(a) Give the hybridization of each atom other than hydrogen.(b) On the basis of your answers in part (a), estimate the
Consider the bonding in H2C=CHCHO.(a) Draw the most important Lewis structure. Include all nonzero formal charges. (b) Identify the composition of the bonds and the hybridization of each lone
The following molecules are bases that are part of the nucleic acids involved in the genetic code. Identify(a) The hybridization of each C and N atom,(b) The number of σ- and π-bonds, and(c) The
Just as AlCl3 forms dimers, in the Bi2Cl42– ion two of the Cl atoms form “bridges” between the two Bi atoms. Propose a Lewis structure for the Bi2Cl42– ion.
Germanium forms a series of anions called “germides.” In the germide ion, Ge4n–, the four Ge atoms form a tetrahedron in which each atom is bonded to the other three and each atom has a lone
One form of the polyatomic ion I5– has an unusual V -shaped structure: one I atom lies at the point of the V , with a linear chain of two I atoms extending on each side. The bond angles are 88° at
The reaction between SbF3 and CsF produces, among other products, the anion Sb2 F7–. This anion has no F—F bonds and no Sb—Sb bonds.(a) Propose a Lewis structure for the ion.(b) Assign a
Consider the molecules H2CCH2, H2CCCH2, and H2CCCCH2.(a) Draw Lewis structures for these molecules.(b) What is the hybridization at each C atom?(c) What type of bond connects the carbon atoms
The nitrogen oxides are common pollutants generated by internal combustion engines and power plants. They not only contribute to the respiratory distress caused by smog but, if they reach the

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