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general chemistry principles

Questions and Answers of General Chemistry Principles

Predict whether each of the following processes involves an increase or a decrease in entropy or whether the outcome is uncertain.(a) The decomposition of ammonium nitrate (a fertilizer and a highly
Figure 13-2 illustrates a spontaneous process through the expansion of an ideal gas into an evacuated bulb. Use the one-dimensional particle-in-a-box model to represent the initial condition of
Consider a sample of ideal gas initially in a volume V at temperature T and pressure P. Does the entropy of this system increase, decrease, or stay the same in the following processes?(a) The gas
(A) Predict whether entropy increases or decreases in each of the following reactions.(a) The Claus process for removing H2S from natural gas: 2 H2S(g) + SO2(g) → 3 S(s) + 2 H2O(g);(b) The
The standard molar entropy of H2(g) is S° = 130.7 J mol-1 K-1 at 298 K. Use this value, together with Boltzmann’s equation, to determine the number of microstates, W, for one mole of H2(g) at 298
What is the standard molar entropy change for the vaporization of water at 373 K given that the standard molar enthalpy of vaporization is 40.7 kJ mol-1 at this temperature?
(A) What is the standard molar entropy of vaporization, ΔvapS°, for CCl2F2, a chlorofluorocarbon that once was heavily used in refrigeration systems? Its normal boiling point is -29.79 °C, and
The normal boiling point of water is 100 °C. At 120 °C and 1 atm, is ΔH or TΔS greater for the vaporization of water?
Calculate the entropy change for the following constant pressure process.The molar heat capacities of ice and water are, respectively, C p,m = 37.12 J mol-1 K-1 and Cp,m = 75.3 J mol-1 K-1. The
In a 1985 paper in the Journal of Chemical Thermodynamics, the standard molar entropy of chalcopyrite, CuFeS2, is given as 0.012 J mol-1 K-1 at 5 K. Use this value to estimate the number of
(A) One mole of neon gas, initially at 300 K and 1.00 bar, expands adiabatically (i.e., with no heat lost to the surroundings) against a constant external pressure of 0.50 bar until the gas pressure
For the reaction below, ΔrG° = 326.4 kJ mol-1: 3 O2(g) → 2 O3(g)What is the Gibbs energy change for the system when 1.75 mol O2(g) at 1 bar reacts completely to give O3(g) at 1 bar?
(A) Calculate the standard reaction entropy at 298.15 K for the synthesis of ammonia from its elements.(B) N2O3 is an unstable oxide that readily decomposes. The standard reaction entropy for the
Indicate whether each of the following changes represents an increase or a decrease in entropy in a system, and explain your reasoning: (a) The freezing of ethanol; (b) The sublimation of dry
Under what temperature conditions would the following reactions occur spontaneously? (a) 2 NH4NO3(s) - (b) I2(g) 2 I(g) 2 N₂(g) + 4 H₂O(g) + O2(g) A,H° -236.0 kJ mol-¹ =
Arrange the entropy changes of the following processes, all at 25 °C, in the expected order of increasing ΔS, and explain your reasoning: (a) H₂O(1, 1 bar) (b) CO₂ (s, 1 bar) (c) H₂O(1, 1
(A) Which of the four cases in Table 13.3 would apply to each of the following reactions?(B) Under what temperature conditions would the following reactions occur spontaneously?(a) The decomposition
Determine ΔrG° at 298.15 K for the reaction - 2 NO(g) + O₂(g) - 2 NO2(g) (at 298.15 K) A,Hº -114.1 kJ mol-1 A,S° -146.5 J K-¹ mol-1 = =
(A) Determine ΔrG° at 298.15 K for the reaction 4 Fe(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2 Fe2O3(s). ΔrH° = -1648 kJ mol-1 and ΔrS° = -549.3 J mol-1 K-1.(B) Determine ΔrG° for the reaction in Example 13-7 by
A system contains H2, N2, and NH3 gases, each with a partial pressure of 0.100 bar. The temperature is held constant at 298.15 K. Calculate the Gibbs energy of reaction, ΔrG, for the formation of
Comment on the difficulties of solving environmental pollution problems from the standpoint of entropy changes associated with the formation of pollutants and with their removal from the environment.
A possible reaction for converting methanol to ethanol is(a) Calculate ΔrH° ΔrS°, and ΔrG° for this reaction at 25 °C.(b) Is this reaction thermodynamically favored at high or low
Establish at 298 K for the reaction:(a) ΔrS°;(b) ΔrH°;(c) ΔrG°;(d) K. 2 NaHCO3(s) Na₂CO3(s) + H₂O(1) + CO₂(g)
Why is ΔrG° such an important property of a chemical reaction, even though the reaction is generally carried out under nonstandard conditions?
At 298 K, ΔfG°[CO(g)] = -137.2 kJ mol-1 and K = 6.5 x 1011 for the reaction CO(g) + Cl2(g) ⇌ COCl2(g). Use these data to determine ΔfG°[COCl2(g)], and compare your result with the value in
At 1000 K, an equilibrium mixture in the reaction CO2(g) + H2(g) ⇌ CO(g) + H2O(g) contains 0.276 mol H2 0.276 mol CO2, 0.224 mol CO, and 0.224 mol H2O.(a) What is K at 1000 K?(b) Calculate ΔrG°
For the following equilibrium reactions, calculate ΔrG° at the indicated temperature. (a) H₂(g) + I2(g) 2 HI(g) K = 50.2 at 445 °C 1 (b) N₂0(g) + O2(g) 2 = 2 NO(g) K = 8.5 × 10-13 at 25
For the reaction 2 SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2 SO3(g), Kc = 2.8 x 102 M-1 at 1000 K.(a) What is ΔrG° at 1000 K?(b) If 0.40 mol SO2 0.18 mol O2, and 0.72 mol SO3 are mixed in a 2.50 L flask at 1000 K, in
Two equations can be written for the dissolution of Mg(OH)2(s) in acidic solution.(a) Explain why these two equations have different ΔrG° values.(b) Will K for these two equations be the same or
Currently, CO2 is being studied as a source of carbon atoms for synthesizing organic compounds. One possible reaction involves the conversion of CO2 to methanol, CH3OH.With the aid of data from
To establish the law of conservation of mass, Lavoisier carefully studied the decomposition of mercury(II) oxide:(a) Show that the partial pressure of O2(g) in equilibrium with HgO(s) and Hg(l) at 25
Use data from Appendix D to determine (a) ΔrH°, ΔrS°, and ΔrG° at 298 K and (b) K at 875 K for the water gas shift reaction, used commercially to produce H2(g): CO(g) + H2O(g) Δ CO2(g) +
Estimate K at 100 °C for the reaction 2 SO2(g) + O2(g) Δ 2 SO3(g). Use data from Table 13.8 and Figure 13-10.Table 13.8Figure 13-10 TABLE 13.8 Equilibrium Constants, K, for the Reaction 2 SO₂(g)
What must be the temperature if the following reaction has ΔrG° = -45.5 kJ mol-1, ΔrH° = -24.8 kJ mol-1, and ΔrS° = 15.2 J mol-1 K-1? Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) 2 Fe(s) + 3 CO₂(g)
In Example 13-12, we used the van’t Hoff equation to determine the temperature at which for the reaction 2 SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2 SO3(g). Obtain another estimate of this temperature with data from
Use data from Appendix D and the van’t Hoff equation (13.25) to estimate a value of K at 100 °C for the reaction 2 NO(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2 NO2(g).Eq. 13.25 In- K₁ - (12-1) A,H° / 1 1 R T₂
Titanium is obtained by the reduction of TiCl4(l), which in turn is produced from the mineral rutile (TiO2).(a) With data from Appendix D, determine ΔrG° at 298 K for this reaction.(b) Show that
The following equilibrium constants have been determined for the reaction H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2 HI(g): K = 50.0 at 448 °C and 66.9 at 350 °C. Use these data to estimate ΔrH° for the reaction.
Sodium carbonate, an important chemical used in the production of glass, is made from sodium hydrogen carbonate by the reactionData for the temperature variation of K for this reaction are K = 1.66 x
For the reaction N2O4(g) ⇌ 2 NO2(g), ΔrH° = +57.2 kJ mol-1 and K = 0.113 at 298 K.(a) What is K at 0 °C?(b) At what temperature will K = 1.00?
In biochemical reactions* the phosphorylation of amino acids is an important step. Consider the following two reactions and determine whether the phosphorylation of arginine with ATP is spontaneous.
Following are some standard Gibbs energies of formation, ΔfG°, at 1000 K: NiO(s), -115 kJ mol-1; MnO(s), -280 kJ mol-1; TiO2(s), -630 kJ mol-1. The standard Gibbs energy of formation of CO(g) at
The synthesis of glutamine from glutamic acid is given by Glu- + NH4+ → Gln + H2O. The standard Gibbs energy of reaction* at pH = 7 and T = 310 K is ΔrG°' = 14.8 kJ mol-1. Will this reaction be
Use data from Appendix D to estimate (a) The normal boiling point of mercury and (b) The vapor pressure of mercury at 25 °C. TABLE D.1 Ground-State Electron Configurations Element Configuration
In an adiabatic process, there is no exchange of heat between the system and its surroundings. Of the quantities ΔS, ΔSsurr, and ΔSuniv, which one(s) must always be equal to zero for a spontaneous
Consider the following hypothetical process in which heat flows from a low to a high temperature. For copper, the molar heat capacity at constant pressure is 0.385 J mol-1 K-1 . (For simplicity, you
Use data from Appendix D and other information from this chapter to estimate the temperature at which the dissociation of I2(g) becomes appreciable [for example, with the I2(g) 50% dissociated into
Calculate ΔS and ΔSuniv when 1.00 mol of H2O(l), initially at 10 C, is converted to H2O(g) at 125 C at a constant pressure of 1.00 bar. The molar heat capacities of H2O(l) and H2O(g) are,
At 298 K, 1.00 mol BrCl(g) is introduced into a 10.0 L vessel, and equilibrium is established in the reactionCalculate the amounts of each of the three gases present when equilibrium is
One mole of argon gas, Ar(g), undergoes a change in state from 25.6 L and 0.877 bar to 15.1 L and 2.42 bar. What are ΔH and ΔS for the argon gas? For Ar(g), the molar heat capacity at constant
Consider the vaporization of water: H2O(l) → H2O(g) at 100 °C, with H2O(l) in its standard state, but with the partial pressure of H2O(g) at 2.0 atm. Which of the following statements about this
The following table shows the enthalpies and Gibbs energies of formation of three metal oxides at 25 °C.(a) Which of these oxides can be most readily decomposed to the free metal and O2(g)?(b) For
The following data are given for the two solid forms of HgI2 at 298 K.Estimate values for the two missing entries. To do this, assume that for the transition HgI2(red) → HgI2(yellow), the values of
The term thermodynamic stability refers to the sign of ΔrG° . If ΔrG° is negative, the compound is stable with respect to decomposition into its elements. Use the data in Appendix D to determine
Use the following data together with other data from the text to determine the temperature at which the equilibrium pressure of water vapor above the two solids in the following reaction is 75 Torr.
From the data given in Exercise 72, estimate a value of ΔrS° at 298 K for the reactionExercise 72Sodium carbonate, an important chemical used in the production of glass, is made from sodium
Oxides of nitrogen are produced in high-temperature combustion processes. The essential reaction is N2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2 NO(g). At what approximate temperature will an equimolar mixture of N2(g) and
The normal boiling point of cyclohexane, C6H12, is 80.7 °C. Estimate the temperature at which the vapor pressure of cyclohexane is 100.0 mmHg.
At 0 °C, ice has a density of 0.917 g mL-1 and an absolute entropy of 37.95 J mol-1 K-1. At this temperature, liquid water has a density of 1.000 g mL-1 and an absolute entropy of 59.94 J mol-1 K-1.
Assume that the constant pressure heat capacity, Cp, of a solid is a linear function of temperature of the form Cp = aT, where a is a constant. Starting from the expressions below for S° and ΔH°,
The decomposition of the poisonous gas phosgene is represented by the equation COCl2(g) ⇌ CO(g) + Cl2(g). Values of K for this reaction are K = 6.7 x 10-9 at 99.8 °C and K = 4.44 x 10-2 at 395
The standard molar entropy of solid hydrazine at its melting point of 1.53 °C is 67.15 J mol-1 K-1. The enthalpy of fusion is 12.66 kJ mol-1. For N2H4(l) in the interval from 1.53 °C to 298.15 K,
The graph shows how ΔrG° varies with temperature for three different oxidation reactions: the oxidations of C(graphite), Zn, and Mg to CO, ZnO, and MgO, respectively. Such graphs as these can be
Use the following data to estimate, S°[C6H6(g, 1 atm)] at 298.15 K. For C6H6(s, 1 atm) at its melting point of 5.53 °C, S° is 128.82 J mol-1 K-1. The enthalpy of fusion is 9.866 kJ mol-1. From the
A tabulation of more precise thermodynamic data than are presented in Appendix D lists the following values for H2O(l) and H2O(g) at 298.15 K, at a standard state pressure of 1 bar.(a) Use these data
In Figure 13-5 the temperature dependence of the standard molar entropy for chloroform is plotted.(a) Explain why the slope for the standard molar entropy of the solid is greater than the slope for
The following data are from a laboratory experiment that examines the relationship between solubility and thermodynamics. In this experiment KNO3(s) is placed in a test tube containing some water.
Consider a system that has four energy levels, with energy ε = 0, 1, 2, and 3 energy units, and three particles labeled A, B, and C. The total energy of the system, in energy units, is 3. How many
The entropy of materials at T = 0 K should be zero; however, for some substances, this is not true. The difference between the measured value and expected value of zero is known as residual entropy.
In your own words, define the following symbols:(a) ΔSuniv;(b) ΔfG°;(c) K; (d) S°; (e) ΔrG°
Coupled Reactions in Biological Systems. The Gibbs energy available from the complete combustion of 1 mol of glucose to carbon dioxide and water is(a) Under biological standard conditions, compute
In a heat engine, heat (qh) is absorbed by a working substance (such as water) at a high temperature (Th). Part of this heat is converted to work (w), and the rest (q1) is released to the
Briefly describe each of the following ideas, methods, or phenomena: (a) Absolute molar entropy;(b) Coupled reactions; (c) Trouton’s rule; (d) Evaluation of an equilibrium constant from
Explain the important distinctions between each of the following pairs: (a) Spontaneous and nonspontaneous processes; (b) The second and third laws of thermodynamics;(c) ΔrG° and ΔrG°; (d) ΔG
For a process to occur spontaneously, (a) The entropy of the system must increase; (b) The entropy of the surroundings must increase; (c) Both the entropy of the system and the entropy of the
The Gibbs energy of a reaction can be used to assess which of the following? (a) How much heat is absorbed from the surroundings; (b) How much work the system does on the surroundings; (c) The net
The reaction, 2 Cl2O(g) → 2 Cl2(g) + O2(g) ΔrH° = -161 kJ mol-1, is expected to be (a) Spontaneous at all temperatures; (b) Spontaneous at low temperatures, but nonspontaneous at high
If ΔrG° = 0 for a reaction, it must also be true that (a) K = 0;(b) K = 1;(c) ΔrH° = 0;(d) ΔrS° = 0;(e) The equilibrium activities of the reactants and products do not depend on the initial
Without performing detailed calculations, indicate whether any of the following reactions would occur to a measurable extent at 298 K. (a) Conversion of dioxygen to ozone: 3 0₂(g) → 2 03(g) (b)
Two correct statements about the reversible reaction N2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2 NO(g) are (a) K = Kp;(b) The equilibrium amount of NO increases with an increased total gas pressure; (c) The equilibrium
Explain briefly why (a) The change in entropy in a system is not always a suitable criterion for spontaneous change;(b) ΔrG° is so important in dealing with the question of spontaneous change,
A handbook lists the following standard enthalpies of formation at 298 K for cyclopentane, C5H10 ΔfH°[C5H10(l)] = -105.9 kJ mol-1 and ΔfH°[C5H10(g)] = -77.2 kJ mol-1.(a) Estimate the normal
Consider the reaction NH4NO3(s) → N2O(g) + 2 H2O(l) at 298 K.(a) Is the forward reaction endothermic or exothermic?(b) What is the value of ΔrG° at 298 K?(c) What is the value of K at 298 K?(d)
Which of the following graphs of Gibbs energy versus the extent of reaction represents an equilibrium constant closest to 1? Gibbs energy, G Reactants Extent of reaction (a) Products Gibbs energy,
At room temperature and normal atmospheric pressure, is the entropy change of the universe positive, negative, or zero for the transition of carbon dioxide solid to liquid?
A 50.00 g sample of a solution of naphthalene, C10H8(s), in benzene, C6H6(l), has a freezing point of 4.45 °C. Calculate the mass percent C10H8 and the boiling point of this solution.
An ethanol–water solution is prepared by dissolving 10.00 mL of ethanol, CH3CH2OH (d = 0.789 g/mL), in a sufficient volume of water to produce 100.0 mL of a solution with a density of 0.982
In one mole of a solution with a mole fraction of 0.5 water, how many water molecules would there be?
(A) A solution that is 20.0% ethanol, by volume, is found to have a density of 0.977 g/mL. Use this fact, together with data from Example 14-1, to determine the mass percent ethanol in the
Which of the following do you expect to be most water soluble, and why? C10H8(s), NH2OH(s), C6H6(l), CaCO3(s).
Which of the several concentration units are temperature-dependent and which are not? Explain.
Which of the following is moderately soluble both in water and in benzene, C6H6(l), and why?(a) 1-butanol, CH3(CH2)2CH2OH; (b) Naphthalene, C10H8;(c) Hexane, C6H14;(d) NaCl(s).
Laboratory ammonia is 14.8 M NH3(aq) with a density of 0.8980 g/mL. What is xNH3 in this solution?
(A) A 16.00% aqueous solution of glycerol, HOCH2CH(OH)CH2OH, by mass, has a density of 1.037 g/mL. What is the mole fraction of glycerol in this solution?(B) A 10.00% aqueous solution of sucrose,
Substances that dissolve in water generally do not dissolve in benzene. Some substances are moderately soluble in both solvents, however. One of the following is such a substance. Which do you think
Do you think that Henry’s law works better for solutions of HCl(g) in benzene, C6H6, than it does for solutions of HCl(g) in water? If so, why?
Predict whether or not a solution will form in each of the following mixtures and whether the solution is likely to be ideal: (a) Ethyl alcohol, CH3CH2OH, and water; (b) The hydrocarbons hexane,
(A) Which of the following organic compounds do you think is most readily soluble in water? Explain.(B) In which solvent is solid iodine likely to be more soluble, water or carbon tetrachloride?
An alternative statement of Raoult’s law is that the fractional lowering of the vapor pressure of the solvent, (P*A - P*A)/P*A, is equal to the mole fraction of solute(s), xB. Show that this
Some vitamins are water soluble and some are fat soluble. (Fats are substances whose molecules have long hydrocarbon chains.) The structural formulas of two vitamins are shown here—one is water

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